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© 2006 The American Society for Nutrition J. Nutr. 136:1947S-1950S, July 2006

Supplement: The WALTHAM International Sciences Symposia Innovations in Companion Animal Nutrition: Obesity and Weight Management

Human-Animal Relationship of Owners of Normal and Overweight Cats1–3,

Ellen Kienzle*,4 and Reinhold Bergler{dagger}

* Institute of Physiology, Biochemistry, and Animal Nutrition, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, D-85764 Oberschleiheim Munich, Germany and {dagger} Psychologisches Institut der Universität Bonn, D-53117 Bonn, Germany

4 To whom correspondence should be sent. E-mail: kienzle{at}tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de.

KEY WORDS: • symposium • human-animal relationship • overweight • cats


   EXPANDED ABSTRACT
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 EXPANDED ABSTRACT
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
A large percentage of cats enrolled in clinical trials using weight-reducing diets do not complete the study (1). Epidemiological data indicate that only a small percentage of cats fed reducing diets actually lose weight (2). However, in controlled laboratory trials weight reduction has been achieved by food restriction (3,4), which indicates lack of compliance by owners of cats in weight reducing programs. Psychological approaches, such as substituting a behavior associated with feeding with a nonfeeding behavior may improve compliance of owners of cats participating in weight reduction programs. The basis for such approaches could come from studies on the relationship of humans with their pets (5).

This study investigated the human-animal relationships involved in the feeding and care of cats, some aspects of cat behavior, and certain personal characteristics (such as the health and eating habits) of owners of normal and overweight cats.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
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 EXPANDED ABSTRACT
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
A total of 120 cat owners (60 with normal and 60 with overweight cats) were interviewed. The personal interview was conducted by a standardized questionnaire. Owners were selected from clients in several private veterinary practices according to age and education, which resulted in a sample not dissimilar to the overall German population. It was not possible to achieve a similar distribution of gender, because the majority of cat owners were females. A precondition for selection was that the owner's cat was not clinically ill at the time of the interview. Only cats that were confined to the house and not allowed to stray outdoors, except for a balcony or a secluded garden, were included in the study. Queens with a body weight below 4 kg and tom cats below 5 kg were considered to have normal weight unless body condition scoring (6) showed definite overweight. To ensure a clear difference, queens were considered overweight if they exceeded 5 kg and tom cats if they weighed >6 kg. The overweight condition was checked by the body condition scores of a single individual.

The questionnaire contained 250 questions in 6 sections that included the following topics: psychological benefits and disadvantages of cat ownership (taken from a former investigation of human-cat relationships (7), activities involving play with the cat, feeding the cat, health care of the cat (based on an exploratory pilot study), and the health, eating behavior, and demographics of the owner. The questionnaire was similar to one used in a survey of dog owners (8).Where applicable, the questions were scaled from 1 to 7 with 1 indicating not at all true, not at all important, or not at all expected and 7 indicating very true, very important, or very much expected. Differences between the owners of overweight and normal cats were examined using significance tests based on criteria of practical significance [significance rating, contingency coefficient (CC), {eta}2 as a measure of the degree of association between the dependant variable, i.e., the proportion of variance in the dependant variable that is attributable to each effect] as described elsewhere (9,10) using SPSS software, version 10.1.


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 EXPANDED ABSTRACT
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
LITERATURE CITED
 
In 15 of 33 items regarding the advantages of cat ownership a significant difference between owners of normal and overweight cats was observed (Table 1). Four items on everyday life with the cat showed also significant differences (Table 2). All cat owners talked to their cats, however, the importance of talking to the cat differed. Moreover, the topics of talking to the cat showed significant differences between owners of normal and overweight cats (Table 3). Reasons for acquiring a cat were variable and many of them were rather accidental, such as "the cat of a relative or friend had kittens and I offered to give a home to one of them." However, one of the reasons given for acquiring a cat was significantly different between owners of normal and overweight cats. Thirty percent of owners of overweight cats compared with 12% of owners of normal cats stated that they did not feel very happy prior to acquiring a cat, and the cat was intended to console and encourage them. These results are suggestive of 1) a closer relationship between overweight cats and their owners than between normal cats and their owners, 2) more over-humanization of overweight cats than of normal cats, 3) a potential role of overweight cats as a substitute for human companions. There are clear-cut differences to a previous study in dogs: over-humanization was also associated with overweight, however, a close human-dog relationship was not (8).


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  		TABLE 1 Advantages of cat ownership: Items with significant differences between owners of normal and overweight cats1

 

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  		TABLE 2 Important points in everyday life with a cat: Items with significant differences between owners of normal and overweight cats1

 

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  		TABLE 3 Topics when talking to the cat: Items with significant differences between owners of normal and overweight cats1

 
Playing with the cat appears to be an effective counterbalance against overweight. It was more important to the owners of normal cats (Table 1) and they spent more time playing with their cats. They perceived more often that their cat invited them to play (78% answered yes, compared with 58% in the group of owners of overweight cats) or that the cat played alone (97 vs. 75%). This difference was also reflected in the variability of play. Of the 7 items in this category, such as chasing the tail, chasing hands, legs, etc, the owners of normal cats stated a significantly higher frequency for 4 of the items than owners of overweight cats. Otherwise, there were no significant differences in the behavior of the cats as perceived by the owners. Time spent for tenderness and caressing did not differ between owners of normal and overweight cats. As a special treat for the cat, the majority of all cat owners used extra tenderness and caressing. Owners of normal cats more often used extra play time as a treat than owners of overweight cats, whereas extra food was more often used by the owners of overweight cats. The same differences were observed when owners were asked their opinion as to what the cat would like best as a treat. Owners of overweight cats more often offered the cat's favorite dishes, and gave in more frequently when the cat was begging for food. Fifty-three percent of owners of overweight cats watched their cats always or usually while they were eating. In contrast, only 25% of owners of normal cats were in the habit of regularly watching their cat eating. A similar effect was observed in dog owners (8). It was interpreted as an indication of food used as a stimulus for communication with the pet.

There was no significant difference between the number of meals and snacks and the type of food received by normal and overweight cats. The overweight cats more often received fresh meat and kitchen scraps or various extra treats added to their regular food (Table 4), which agrees with findings in dogs (8) and another study on cats (11).


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  		TABLE 4 Choice of food for the cat

 
An important difference was that overweight cats were more often given food on a free-choice basis. Food was continuously available to 60% of normal cats and 83% of overweight cats. Another European working group (11) also observed an association of overweight cats with free-choice feeding, whereas this was not the case in a US study (2). Dry food is more likely left out than moist food. In the US study, leanness was associated with feeding store-brand economy dry cat food that may not have been highly palatable and overweight was associated with the feeding of nongrocery dry food.

When asked how the owners perceived the body condition of their cats, only a small percentage readily indicated that their cat was overweight (Table 5). The majority preferred euphemisms like a little bit too big, or did not perceive or admit anything extraordinary about the weight of their cat. There was no difference in the frequency of weighing the cat. When the cat owners were asked in another context (data on the cat) to compare the silhouette of their cat to 6 unlabeled body-condition silhouettes that ranged from 1, emaciated, to 6, obese (see 12) there were significant differences between the 2 groups. The majority of owners of normal cats picked the shape 3. The owners of overweight cats mostly picked shape 5 or 4. However, when the estimates of the owners were compared with the judgment of the interviewer, there were striking differences. There was reasonable agreement between the estimate of the owners of normal cats and the interviewer. In contrast, the majority of owners of overweight cats perceived the silhouette of their own cat as considerably thinner than the interviewer did. Some even likened their cats to underweight silhouettes. Compared with dog owners in a previous study (8), cat owners were less aware of the overweight problem of their pet than dog owners. One possible explanation is that cats appear less often in public (where other people might comment on the condition of the animal) than dogs. Another is that cats are not exercised to the point where the consequences of being overweight (such as apnea) may become obvious.


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  		TABLE 5 Perception of the body condition of the cat

 
Items suggestive of an owner's interest in the preventive health care of their cats showed few differences. Few owners in either group stated that health checks were the most important reason to see a veterinary surgeon. However, 40% of the owners of normal cats stated that health checks were the second most important reason for visits to the veterinary surgeon and 57% stated that it was only their third most important reason. In contrast, only 20% of the owners of overweight cats gave health checks second priority, the remaining 72% ranged it as third priority. In addition, owners of normal cats paid significantly more attention to fecal quality. This parallels previous observations in dogs, where owners of overweight dogs had less interest in preventive health care than owners of normal dogs (8).

There were hardly any differences between the eating behavior of owners of normal and overweight cats. The incidence of overweight (self-estimate and BMI) did not differ. The owners of overweight cats were rather more concerned about their own health than the owners of normal cats. For 4 of 23 items on their health behavior they gave significantly higher ratings: balanced nutrition (4.5 vs. 3.6), right temperature in the refrigerator (4.2 vs. 4.4), enough sleep (5.4 vs. 4.6), regular health-checks (3.9 vs. 2.8). There were no differences in the frequency and intensity of exercise. Obviously owners' lifestyle does not affect the cats' risk for overweight. This finding differs from previous observations in dogs (8) who shared their owners' lifestyle and the included risk of being overweight.

There were no differences in age, marital status, number of adult or juvenile persons in the household, education, profession, or income. One exception was the number of persons who did not work or go to school, which was higher in households with overweight cats.

Unlike in studies with dogs, where the owners of overweight dogs had a lower income (8), there were practically no differences in demography between the owners of overweight and normal cats, gender being the only exception. The majority of all cat owners were female. However, the percentage of female owners was significantly higher in the overweight than normal weight cat groups (97 vs. 87%). Former studies (7) indicated that women have closer relationships with their cats than men. A close relationship between cat and owner has been suggested in the present study as a risk factor for the overweight cat. Therefore, the higher percentage of women among the owners of overweight cats might just reflect a closer relationship between women and their cats.

Overweight cats were significantly more often middle aged, which agrees with other investigations (12–14). Neutering did not increase the statistical risk of overweight in this study, probably because the majority (>90%) of cats in both groups were neutered.


   FOOTNOTES
 
1 Published in a supplement to The Journal of Nutrition. Presented as part of The WALTHAM International Nutritional Sciences Symposium: Innovations in Companion Animal Nutrition held in Washington, DC, September 15–18, 2005. This conference was supported by The WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition and organized in collaboration with the University of California, Davis, and Cornell University. This publication was supported by The WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition. Guest editors for this symposium were D'Ann Finley, Francis A. Kallfelz, James G. Morris, and Quinton R. Rogers. Guest editor disclosure: expenses for the editors to travel to the symposium and honoraria were paid by The WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition. Back

2 Author disclosure: no relationships to disclose. Back

3 Supported by Masterfoods GmbH, 2781 Verden, Germany. Back


   LITERATURE CITED
TOP
 EXPANDED ABSTRACT
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 

1. Butterwick RF, Wills JM, Sloth C, Markwell PJ. A study of obese cats on a calorie-controlled weight reduction programme. Vet Rec. 1994;134:372–7.[Abstract]

2. Donoghue S, Scarlett JM. Diet and feline obesity. J. Nutr. 1998;128:2776S–8S.[Free Full Text]

3. Dobenecker B. Einfluss von futterzusammensetzung und nahrungsentzug auf ausgewaehlte parameter des fettstoffwechsels bei uebergewichtigen katzen. [Influence of feed composition and starvation on selected variables of fat metabolism in obese cats.] Hannover, Tieraerztliche Hochschule, Germany, dissertation, 1994.

4. Butterwick RF, Hawthorne AJ. Advances in dietary management of obesity in dogs and cats. J. Nutr. 1998;128:2771S–5S.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

5. Norris MP, Beaver BV. Application of behavior therapy techniques to the treatment of obesity in companion animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993;202:728–30.[Medline]

6. Laflamme D. Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: a clinical tool. Feline Pract. 1997;25:13–8.

7. Bergler R. Man and cat. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1989.

8. Kienzle E, Bergler R, Mandernach A. A comparison of the feeding behavior and the human-animal relationship in owners of normal and obese dogs. J. Nutr. 1998;128:2779S–82S.[Free Full Text]

9. Bergler R. Man and dog. The psychology of a relationship. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1988.

10. Kirk RE. Practical significance: The concept whose time has come. Educ Psychol Meas. 1996;56:746–59.[Abstract]

11. Russell K, Sabin R, Holt S, Bradley R, Harper, EJ. Influence of feeding regimen on body condition in the cat. J Small Anim Pract. 2000;41:1, 12–17.

12. Scarlett JM, Donoghue S, Saidla J, Wills JM. Overweight cats: prevalence and risk factors. Int J Obes. 1994;18 Suppl. 1:S22–8.

13. Harper EJ. Changing perspectives on aging and energy requirements: aging, body weight and body composition in humans, dogs and cats. J Nutr. 1998;128:2632S–35S.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

14. Kienzle, E, Edtstadtler-Pietsch, G., Rudnick, R. Retrospective study on the energy requirements of adult colony cats. J. Nutr. 2006;136:1973S–5S.[Free Full Text]





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