![[Feedback]](/icons/banner/feedbackACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[For Subscribers]](/icons/banner/subscriberACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Archive]](/icons/banner/archiveACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Search]](/icons/banner/searchACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Contents]](/icons/banner/tocACT.gif){kind=icon}
|
|
|
|
|
||
Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10021
ABSTRACT
The objective of this review is to examine briefly the medical uses of garlic throughout the ages and the role that it was considered to play in prevention and treatment of disease. Interest in the potential benefits of garlic has origins in antiquity and is one of the earliest documented examples of plants employed for treatment of disease and maintenance of health. Garlic was in use at the beginning of recorded history and was found in Egyptian pyramids and ancient Greek temples. There are Biblical references to garlic. Ancient medical texts from Egypt, Greece, Rome, China and India each prescribed medical applications for garlic. In many cultures, garlic was administered to provide strength and increase work capacity for laborers. Hippocrates, the revered physician, prescribed garlic for a variety of conditions. Garlic was given to the original Olympic athletes in Greece, as perhaps one of the earliest "performance enhancing" agents. It is of interest that cultures that developed without contact with one another came to similar conclusions about the efficacy of garlic. Modern science is tending to confirm many of the beliefs of ancient cultures regarding garlic, defining mechanisms of action and exploring garlic’s potential for disease prevention and treatment.
KEY WORDS: • garlic • allium • Codex Ebers • Hippocrates • Charaka-Samhita • Historica Naturalis • Home Book of Health
Interest
in the potential benefits of garlic has origins in antiquity and is one
of the earliest documented example of plants used for maintenance of
health and treatment of disease (Block 1985
, Kahn 1996
). In this review, we consider briefly the highlights of
garlic usage throughout the ages. It is fascinating to observe how
ancient cultures developing in isolation from one another came to many
of the same conclusions about garlic’s action and efficacy.
Ancient Egypt.
As listed in Table 1
, the earliest
known references indicate that garlic formed part of the daily diet of
many Egyptians. It was fed particularly to the working class involved
in heavy labor, as in the building of the pyramids (Moyers 1996
). Indeed, a recurring theme throughout early history is
that garlic was given to the laboring classes, presumably to maintain
and increase their strength, thereby enabling them to work harder and
be more productive.
|
1500 BC, was excavated in
1922, cloves of garlic were clearly identified (Green and Polydoris 1993
, Kahn 1996
). What purpose did the
garlic serve in the tomb? Did it have religious significance? Was it a
reminder of daily life of Egypt, or was it left by a careless workman
during a lunch break? We do not know the answers to these questions,
but the presence of garlic in the tomb is strong evidence that the
vegetable was in use at the time.
The authoritative medical text of the era was the Codex
Ebers (Bergner 1996
, Lawson 1998
),
which consisted of a number of volumes. Several of the treatments
authorized the use of garlic. The Codex Ebers is one of the
earliest sources indicating prescription of garlic for the treatment of
abnormal growths. It is probable that these growths represented
malignancies of one kind or another. Abscesses would also have fit into
this category. The Codex also prescribed garlic for
circulatory ailments, general malaise and infestations with insects and
parasites.
Biblical.
According to the Bible, the Jewish slaves in Egypt were fed
garlic and other allium vegetables, apparently to give them strength
and increase their productivity, as it was believed to do for the
indigenous Egyptian citizens. The Jewish people must have developed
some fondness for garlic, because when they left from Egypt with Moses,
it is written (Table 2
) that they missed
"the fish. the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the
onions and the garlic" (Num. 11:5) (Bergner 1996
). It
is unlikely that garlic had religious significance for the Jews,
although this possibility cannot be excluded. The Talmud, a Jewish
religious text dating from the 2nd century AD, prescribes patterns of
behavior, including the consumption of garlic for the treatment of
infection with parasites and other disorders (Moyers 1996
). Although in contemporary life one does not tend to
ascribe romantic properties to garlic, its use was recommended by the
Talmud to promote relations among married couples, perhaps as an aid to
procreation.
|
Ancient Greece.
As noted in Table 3
, excavations of
ancient Greek temples have unearthed garlic, and the palace of Knossos
in Crete, dating to 1400–1800 BC, contained well-preserved
garlic when it was excavated (Moyers 1996
). As with the
Egyptians, garlic was associated with strength and work capacity.
Garlic formed an important part of the military diet, particularly when
soldiers were off to battle.
|
, Lawson 1998
),
conceivably functioning as one of the first of the so-called
"performance enhancing" agents used in competitive athletics. If
so, one wonders whether there were prescribed doses, clinical trials
and limits placed on the amounts consumed. One imagines that there must
have been someone in authority supervising the activities of the
athletes as they prepared themselves for the sports competition.
Hippocrates, widely regarded as the father of Medicine, made garlic a
part of his therapeutic armamentarium, advocating its use for pulmonary
complaints, as a cleansing or purgative agent, and for abdominal
growths, particularly uterine (Moyers 1996
).
As in the cultures discussed above, garlic appears to have been
consumed primarily by the lower classes. It appears not to have been a
favorite food item among the ruling classes and its presence in
religious temples was not permitted (Moyers 1996
), a
proscription also found in certain Asian cultures.
Ancient Rome.
As in Greece, the Romans perceived garlic as an aid to strength and
endurance; it was fed to both soldiers and sailors (Green and Polydris 1993
) and was part of a ship’s manifest when it set
out to sea. With the emergence of Rome as a leading power, Greek
medicine and its traditions gradually were transferred to Rome. The
leading medical authority was the Greek, Dioscorides (Bergner 1996
, Riddle 1996
), who served as the chief
physician for Nero’s army (Table 4
). He was the
author of a five-volume treatise that recommended garlic because it
"cleans the arteries." It should be noted that the circulation of
the blood was not discovered until hundreds of years later, and
contemporary beliefs held that arteries transported air throughout the
body, whereas veins were known to transport blood. Clearly, the concept
that cardiovascular status may be improved by garlic, presently a
subject of active research, has origins in antiquity. Garlic was also
recommended for disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, for treatment
of animal bites and for alleviation of joint disease and seizures.
|
, Moyers 1996
). Twenty-three uses for garlic were listed for a
variety of disorders. Among these was that garlic was believed to
confer significant protection against toxins and infections, a finding
corroborated by contemporary investigations of the effects of garlic
upon activities of P450-2E1 and other hepatic
degradative diseases (Block 1985
, Pinto and Rivlin 1999
).
Ancient China and Japan.
The use of garlic as a food and as a medicinal agent has ancient
origins in Asia. The best estimate is that by or before 2000 BC, garlic
was in wide use in China and formed part of the daily diet,
particularly when consumed together with raw meat (Kahn 1996
, Moyers 1996
). Records dating from that era
suggest that garlic was also used as a food preservative, as listed in
Table 5
.
|
). As a spicy food, its regular
consumption was recommended but in limited quantities. Evidence also
suggests that garlic was utilized to treat sadness or depression as
well. Chinese medicine has historically been associated with the use of
combinations of herbs to form a healing tonic, rather than the
administration of single agents. Allium was evidently frequently used
in combination therapy. Fatigue, headache and insomnia were often
treated with garlic. There are also indications that garlic was used to
treat and improve male potency (Kahn 1996
). It is
believed that garlic was introduced in Japan later than in China,
probably 2000 years ago (Kahn 1996
).
Ancient India.
Garlic has been associated with the healing process in India from the
time of the first available written records. Three ancient medical
traditions, i.e., Tibbi, Unani and Auryvedic, made extensive use of
garlic as a central part of the healing efficacy of plants
(Moyers 1996
). The leading surviving medical text,
Charaka-Samhita, recommends garlic for the treatment of
heart disease and arthritis 2000 years ago as listed in Table 6
(Woodward 1996
).
|
300 AD, advanced the use of garlic for
infections, infestations and worms, weakness and fatigue, and a variety
of digestive disturbances. This text, nearly as old as the
Charaka-Samhita, is known as the Bower manuscript because,
after being found in an ancient tomb, it was purchased by a British
Army officer, Hamilton Bower, late in the 19th century, who then made
it available to scholars.
Garlic was also observed to have a diuretic effect. It is possible that
the mobilization of fluid from the extravascular space may have been
due to improved cardiovascular function resulting from garlic
treatment. It is now well recognized that garlic, appropriately used,
will reduce blood pressure (Steiner et al. 1996
),
improve elevated serum cholesterol [reviewed by Rivlin (1998)
], decrease platelet aggregation (Steiner and Lin 1999) and protect vascular endothelial cells from damage by LDL
(Ide and Lau 1997
); all of these effects are of
potential cardiac benefit.
Some religious sects did not permit the consumption of garlic or
onions, rather as the Greeks and Romans proscribed garlic in the
temples (Moyers 1996
). Garlic either was not permitted
or fancied by the upper Brahmin classes, whereas in other castes, it
was applied externally to help repair cuts, bruises and infections, and
it comprised one of a number of perceived aphrodisiacs available from
natural plant sources (Kahn 1996
).
Middle Ages.
Garlic became available in Europe after the Roman legions moved north.
During Medieval times, knowledge of the therapeutic use of plants,
particularly garlic, was gained and transmitted through the monks.
Garlic was grown in the monasteries. The leading text of the middle
ages was the Hortulus manuscript from shortly after 800 AD,
as noted in Table 7
(Moyers 1996
). This volume described
all of the plants growing in one cloister that were thought to have
medicinal properties: Garlic featured prominently; it is interesting in
that there does not seem to have been any objection to its use in a
religious setting in that era, in contrast to its rejection by
religious leaders in earlier cultures.
|
, Moyers 1996
). The
recommendation of garlic for those who had to do hard physical labor is
a recurring theme dating to antiquity. Another recurring theme is of
the upper classes tending to reject garlic and not consider it fit for
their consumption.
A leading physician during the latter part of the 12th century, the
Abbess of Rupertsberg, St. Hildegard von Bingen (Bergner 1996
, Kahn 1996
), gave garlic a prominent role
in her medical writing. Curiously, she came to the conclusion that raw
garlic was more effective than cooked garlic, perhaps because the
latter has less pungency then the former. In the Medical School at
Salerno, one of the most influential centers of medical learning at the
time, food played an important role in the treatment of disease as well
as in the preservation of good health. Garlic was classified as a
"hot food" to be consumed during the winter to limit the
development of pulmonary or breathing disorders (Moyers 1996
). Garlic was also utilized against massive debilitation
and later in the Great Plagues (Bergner 1996
,
Woodward 1996
).
The Renaissance.
With the onset of the Renaissance, increasing attention was paid in
Europe to the medical uses of plants. So-called "physic"
gardens were established at leading universities to grow plants of
medicinal value. Garlic was one of the major plants grown for this
purpose (Table 8
). A leading
physician of the 16th Century, Pietro Mattioli of Siena, wrote widely,
and his work was translated into several other languages. He prescribed
garlic for digestive disorders, infestations with worms and renal
disorders, as well as to help mothers during difficult childbirth
(Moyers 1996
).
|
In England, however, garlic remained the food of the working classes, a
view that did not prevent the wealthier English from enjoying the
therapeutic properties of garlic, i.e., it was recommended for
constipation, toothache, dropsy, animal bites and the
plague. Its purported beneficial effects in treating dropsy suggest
that it was thought to improve cardiovascular function, mechanisms of
which are only now under study. Doctors carried cloves of garlic with
them at all times to protect themselves from the odor of disease
(Moyers 1996
).
Early America.
Moving closer to contemporary times, it is worth recalling that bulbs
similar to garlic grew freely in the woods of North America and that
Native Americans used garlic in their tea. It was brought to the new
world by the explorers and sailors from France and Portugal. Later in
the 19th century, garlic formed an important part of the Shaker medical
armamentarium as a stimulant, expectorant and tonic. Garlic’s
perceived therapeutic properties were all accepted by large groups of
the population (Moyers 1996
).
The Home Book of Health, authored by John Gunn in 1878,
featured garlic prominently; it was recommended as a diuretic, for
treatment of infections, as a general tonic and for asthma and other
pulmonary disorders (Moyers 1996
). In the early part of
the 20th century, in the volume Health Remedies, a
Complete Medical Work and Family Guide, garlic was promoted for
diseases of the lung in children and adults.
Summary
In this cursory overview of garlic in early history, several issues emerge as recurring themes. It is fascinating to observe how cultures that never came into contact with one another came to many of the same conclusions about the role of garlic in the treatment of disease. Garlic was used for laborers with a view to improving their work capacity. Garlic was recommended for pulmonary and respiratory complaints. Its efficacy in dropsy is compatible with known cardiovascular functions.
Contemporary research is tending to validate many of the earlier views concerning the efficacy of garlic. Folk wisdom should not be ignored because it may teach us valuable lessons. We have much to learn from the ancients as we adopt a historical perspective and seek to elucidate the mechanisms of action of garlic and its derivatives and to establish its ultimate role in the prevention and treatment of disease.
|
FOOTNOTES
1 Presented at the conference "Recent Advances
on the Nutritional Benefits Accompanying the Use of Garlic as a
Supplement" held November 15–17, 1998 in Newport Beach, CA. The
conference was supported by educational grants from Pennsylvania State
University, Wakunaga of America, Ltd. and the National Cancer
Institute. The proceedings of this conference are published as a
supplement to The Journal of Nutrition. Guest editors:
John Milner, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA and
Richard Rivlin, Weill Medical College of Cornell University and
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY. 
2 Supported in part by the Clinical Nutrition
Research Unit grant (CA 29502) from the National Institutes of Health.
Partial funding was also provided by grants from American Institute for
Cancer Research, Wakunaga of America, the Sunny and Abe Rosenberg
Foundation, the Rosenfeld Heart Foundation, The Ronald and Susan Lynch
Foundation, and the NOW Company.
3 Present address: American Health Foundation, New York, NY 10017.
REFERENCES
1. Bergner P. The Healing Power of Garlic 1996:3-26 Prima Publishing Rocklin, CA.
2. Block E. The chemistry of garlic and onions. Sci. Am. 1985;252:114-119[Medline]
3. Green O. C., III, Polydoris N. G. Garlic, Cancer and Heart Disease: Review and Recommendations 1993:21-41 GN Communications Chicago, IL.
4. Ide N., Lau B. H. Garlic compounds protect vascular endothelial cells from oxidized low density lipoprotein-induced injury. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1997;49:908-911[Medline]
5. Kahn G. History of garlic. Koch H. P. Lawson L. D. eds. Garlic: The Science and Therapeutic Application of Allium sativum L. and Related Species 1996:25-36 Williams and Wilkins New York, NY.
6. Lawson, L. D. (1998) Garlic: a review of its medicinal effects and indicated active compounds. In: Phytomedicines of Europe. Chemistry and Biological Activity. ACS Symposium Series 691 (Lawson, L. D. & Bauer, R., eds.), pp. 176–209. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
7. Moyers S. Garlic in Health, History and World Cuisine 1996:1-36 Suncoast Press St. Petersburg, FL.
9. Pinto J. T., RivIin R. S. Garlic and other allium vegetables in cancer prevention. Heber D. Blackburn G. Go U. L. M. eds. Nutritional Oncology 1999 Academic Press San Diego, CA. pp. 393–403.
10. Riddle J. M. The medicines of Greco-Roman antiquity as a source of medicines for today. Holland B. K. eds. Prospecting for Drugs in Ancient and Medieval European Texts: A Scientific Approach 1996:7-17 Harwood Academic Publishers Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
11. Riviin R. S. Patient with hyperlipidemia who received garlic supplements. Lipid Management. Report from the Lipid Education Council 1998;3:6-7
12.
Steiner M., Khan A. H., Holbert D., Lin R.I. A double-blind crossover study in moderately hypercholesterolemic men that compared the effect of aged garlic extract and placebo administration on blood lipids. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996;64:866-870
13. Steiner M., Lin R. S. Changes in platelet function and susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation associated with administration of aged garlic extract. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1998;31:904-908[Medline]
14. Woodward P. W. Garlic and Friends: The History, Growth and Use of Edible Alliums 1996:2-22 Hyland House Melbourne, Australia.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  Y. J. Kim, S. K. Jin, and H. S. Yang Effect of dietary garlic bulb and husk on the physicochemical properties of chicken meat Poult. Sci., February 1, 2009; 88(2): 398 - 405. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. S Rivlin Can garlic reduce risk of cancer? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 17 - 18. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y.-P. Lei, H.-W. Chen, L.-Y. Sheen, and C.-K. Lii Diallyl Disulfide and Diallyl Trisulfide Suppress Oxidized LDL-Induced Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule and E-Selectin Expression through Protein Kinase A- and B-Dependent Signaling Pathways J. Nutr., June 1, 2008; 138(6): 996 - 1003. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 N. Li, R. Guo, W. Li, J. Shao, S. Li, K. Zhao, X. Chen, N. Xu, S. Liu, and Y. Lu A proteomic investigation into a human gastric cancer cell line BGC823 treated with diallyl trisulfide Carcinogenesis, June 1, 2006; 27(6): 1222 - 1231. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. S. Rivlin Is Garlic Alternative Medicine? J. Nutr., March 1, 2006; 136(3): 713S - 715S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Amagase Clarifying the Real Bioactive Constituents of Garlic J. Nutr., March 1, 2006; 136(3): 716S - 725S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Macan, R. Uykimpang, M. Alconcel, J. Takasu, R. Razon, H. Amagase, and Y. Niihara Aged Garlic Extract May Be Safe for Patients on Warfarin Therapy J. Nutr., March 1, 2006; 136(3): 793S - 795S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Thomas, P. Zhang, M.-L. Noordine, P. Vaugelade, C. Chaumontet, and P.-H. Duee Diallyl Disulfide Increases Rat H-Ferritin, L-Ferritin and Transferrin Receptor Genes In Vitro in Hepatic Cells and In Vivo in Liver J. Nutr., December 1, 2002; 132(12): 3638 - 3641. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
