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*
Biological Science Laboratories, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, 321-3497, Japan;
Department of Biochemistry, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 173-8605, Japan; and
**
Division of Clinical Nutrition, The National Institute of Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, 162-0052, Japan
1To whom correspondence should be addressed.
 |
ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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KEY WORDS: • diacylglycerol • triacylglycerol • humans • visceral fat
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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,
Manson et al. 1987
, Pi-Sunyer 1991
,
Seidell et al. 1996
), and intra-abdominal
distribution of fat in the body is associated more closely to disease
risks (Bouchard et al. 1990
, Kannel et al. 1991
, Matsuzawa et al. 1995
). Obesity
characterized by an excessive body fat accumulation is generally
associated with enhanced lipid consumption (Fricker et al. 1989
). Therefore, numerous studies on the bioavailability of
various structured lipids have been conducted for the management of
obesity.
In our laboratory, we have been studying the nutritional
characteristics and dietary effects of diacylglycerol
(DG)2
. DG has been recognized as an intermediate in the process of
triacylglycerol (TG) digestion in the digestive tract. DG that occurs
in the digestive process is 1,2- and 2,3-species since the lingual or
pancreatic lipase cleaves fatty acids only at 1- or 3-position of the
TG molecule (Murata et al. 1994
). When 1,2- and
2,3-species of DG are heated, they are converted to 1,3-species by acyl
migration to the extent intrinsic to the fatty acid composition in the
molecule (Kodali et al. 1990
). DG is a normally consumed
dietary oil because it is a component (2–10%) of edible fats and
lipids of various sources (Abdel-Nabey et al. 1992
,
D’alonzo et al. 1982
). Although our daily-consumed
oils contain 1,3-species of DG, nutritional characteristics of DG of
1,3-species evaluated in humans are seldom found in the literature.
We have previously shown that intragastric infusion of an emulsion
containing DG mainly of 1,3-species, compared to that containing TG,
significantly retarded the lymphatic transport of TG as chylomicrons in
rats (Murata et al. 1994
). We recently showed that the
postprandial increase in serum TG and chylomicron concentration after a
single dose of DG emulsion was less than after a TG emulsion in humans
(Naito et al. 1997
). Since the fatty acid composition in
DG and TG used in these studies had been adjusted to be approximately
equal, we concluded that the difference was due to the different
metabolic fates due to the different structures of the lipids.
Since elevations of postprandial TG-rich plasma lipoproteins are
closely associated with visceral obesity and diseases such as diabetes
mellitus and coronary artery disease (Cohn 1998
,
Couillard et al. 1998
, Donald 1995
,
Dubois et al. 1998
), we speculated that the
long-term ingestion of DG may improve lipid metabolism in humans.
In the present study, we assessed the potential health benefits of DG in comparison with TG using 38 healthy male volunteers. The study was carried out in a double-blind, controlled manner. Changes in anthropometric variables, body fat and serum lipid profiles before and after the 16 wk treatment were compared to those in subjects consuming the TG diet.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Subjects were 38 men aged from 27 to 49 y with body mass index
(BMI) of 24.1 ± 0.4 kg/m2. All subjects were
generally healthy and had no history of diabetes or lipemia. Most of
the subjects were classified as level 1 in daily activity (mild)
according to the 5th Recommended Dietary Allowances for the Japanese
(The Ministry of Health and Welfare 1994
).
This study with human volunteers was carried out with sufficient respect for the spirit of the Helsinki Declaration of 1975 as revised in 1983. The procedures had been fully explained to the volunteers. All subjects gave their signed informed consent before admission.
Test diets.
The 1,3-DG rich oil was prepared by esterifying glycerol with fatty
acids from rapeseed oil with low erucic acid content by the method of
Birgitte et al. (1988)
using the reverse reaction of immobilized
lipase. The TG oil was prepared by mixing the same rapeseed, soybean,
and safflower oils so that the fatty acid composition is similar to
that of the 1,3-DG-rich oil. All of these material oils were obtained
from Nissin Oil Mills (Tokyo, Japan). Table 1
shows the fatty acid compositions of the test oils. The 1,3-DG-rich oil
contained 83 g/100 g of 1,3- and 1 (or 3),2-DG and 17 g/100 g of TG.
The ratio of 1,3-DG to 1 (or 3),2-DG was 68:32. The combustion energy
of both the 1,3-DG-rich and TG oil measured with a bomb calorimeter was
about 38 kJ/g (analyzed by the Japan Food Analysis Center, Tokyo,
Japan).
|
Protocol.
This study was carried out in a double-blind, controlled manner.
Before the beginning of this study, all subjects were trained to
estimate fat intake using the 4th Revision of the Standard Tables of
Food Composition in Japan (The Ministry of Science and Technology 1982
). For 4 wk before the test period (designated as control period),
the subjects were asked to consume about 50 g of total fat daily.
The daily total fat intake of 50 g is equal to that described in
the 1994 Results of National Nutritional Survey of the Japanese (The Ministry of Health and Welfare 1996
). The test diet was given only as
breakfast, and the daily intake of the test oil was set at 10 g.
The subjects were asked to consume the test diet every day throughout
the study period. For breakfast, besides the test diet, they were asked
to consume additional food containing about 5 g fat of their own
choice. For lunch from Monday to Friday, the subjects chose food with
known fat contents (about 15 g in total, calculated by a
nutritionist) in the cafeteria. For dinner from Monday to Friday, the
subjects consumed packed meals with total fat of ~20 g prepared under
the guidance of the nutritionist. For lunch and dinner on Saturday,
Sunday and holidays, the subjects consumed self-selected meals with
about 50 g/d of total fat including test oils. The fat contents in
self-selected meals were calculated according to the 4th Revision
of the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan and recorded by the
subjects. Since no restriction was imposed as for the total energy
intake, the subjects were free to have foods with low-fat content
such as plain rice.
After the control period, all subjects underwent baseline measurements and were divided into two groups of 19. The grouping was random except that two variables, BMI and hepatic fat, were not significantly different between the groups. One group consumed the DG diet and the other group consumed the TG diet for breakfast. The subjects in both groups consumed meals or snacks similarly to the control period. The test diets were supplied for 16 wk every day (designated as test period). During the control and test period, the daily alcoholic beverage intake was restricted to the amount equivalent to about 30 mL of alcohol. The subjects were also asked to maintain the daily exercise at a fixed level throughout the study.
Diet diary.
The subjects were instructed to record the contents of daily meals and snacks in the diet diary for the entire control period and the last 4 wk of the test period. Daily energy intake, fat intake and percentage of fat energy to the total energy intake were calculated from the diary record by a nutritionist on the basis of the 4th Revision of the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan.
Anthropometric measurements.
All measurements were performed by investigators trained in anthropometric measurements. Participants wore light clothing with footwear removed. Body weight and height were measured to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. Minimum waist circumference was taken halfway between the coastal border and the iliac crest. Maximum hip circumference was obtained at the level of the greatest posterior protuberance. Both waist and hip circumferences were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm in a standing position. These measurements were performed on wk 0 and 16.
Blood sampling and clinical analysis.
On wk 0, 16, blood samples were collected from fasting subjects. Blood sampling and anthropometric measurements were performed in the same day. Alcoholic beverage was prohibited for 1 wk before blood sampling. The subjects were deprived of food overnight from 2100 h; a venous blood sample was obtained between 0900–1000 the next day.
All the analyses except for glucose were performed with serum samples. When plasma was prepared for glucose determination, blood samples were collected into tubes containing EDTA. Plasma and serum were obtained by centrifugation at 1,500 x g for 15 min at 4°C. Plasma and serum were analyzed by Mitsubishi Chemical BCL (Tokyo, Japan). TG concentration was measured using an LPL-GK-GPO-POD assay kit (Triglyzim-600® "EIKEN"; Eiken Chemical, Tokyo, Japan). Free fatty acids (FFA) concentration was measured using an enzymatic assay kit (Determiner® NEFA; Kyowa Medex, Tokyo, Japan). Total cholesterol concentration was measured using an enzymatic assay kit (Daiya auto T-cho, Daiya Chemical, Tokyo, Japan). Insulin concentration was measured using a solid-phase radio imunoassay kit (INSULINRIABEAD®II;Dainabot, Tokyo, Japan). Glucose concentration was measured using a glucose-dehydrogenase assay kit (Merck Liquid GLU; Kanto Chemicals, Tokyo, Japan). Total ketone body was measured using direct enzymatic assay kit (Ketone test A "Sanwa" liquid & Ketone test B "Sanwa" liquid; Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho, Nagoya, Japan).
Measurement of fat by computed tomography (CT).
The subjects underwent CT scanning within 3 d before or
after each blood sampling at either of the following two facilities and
instrumentation: Yabuki Clinic, (Tochigi, Japan, TCT-300, Toshiba
Medical); Hakujuji General Hospital (Ibaraki, Japan, W950SR, Hitachi
Medico). Transverse tomograms at the umbilical level and those at fixed
intervals in which the spleen and liver were observed in the same plane
were taken. Total fat area, visceral fat area and subcutaneous fat area
were determined from the CT images at the umbilical level by the method
of Tokunaga et al. (1983)
. Hepatic fat content was estimated by the
method of Kato et al. (1984)
. The Hounsfield unit of the liver and that
of the spleen in a CT image were determined, and the liver-to-spleen
ratio of the values (L-HU/S-HU) was calculated as an index of the
hepatic fat content.
Measurement of body fat.
Body fat before and after the test period was measured by the
air-replacement method (Dempster and Aitkens 1995
)
using a body densitometer MAB-1000 (Nihon Kohden, Tokyo, Japan).
Statistical analyses.
Values were expressed as means ± SEM. The
differences in the raw data between the groups were examined by
Student’s t test (two-tailed). The changes from the
baselines in each group were examined by Student’s t
test for paired values (two-tailed). The intergroup differences of
these changes were also examined by Student’s t test
(two-tailed). A simple linear regression equation was calculated by the
least-squares method. Correlation was tested for equality using the
Fisher’s Z transformation (Kleinbaum and Kupper 1978
). The
significance of the treatment effect on the variables that showed
significant differences between the groups at baseline, as examined by
t test, was analyzed by analysis of covariance. The
extent of change from the baseline for each group was analyzed using
the baseline value as the covariate. The significance levels were set
at P < 0.05 for all tests. These statistical
calculations were performed with Stat View for windows version 4.58
(SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Daily energy intakes, fat intakes and percent of fat energy intakes did not differ significantly between the groups. Although the subjects were asked to consume 50 g/d fat including test oils, the actual fat intake was calculated to be 43 g/d. The daily energy intake was 7950 kJ, and the percent fat energy was about 21%. All these values agreed with the appropriate intakes defined by the guidelines of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in Japan.
Effect on body size.
Body weight, BMI and waist circumference decreased significantly in
both groups after the test period. The extent of decrease in each
variable, however, was significantly greater in the DG group than that
in the TG group (Table 2
).
|
. The waist-to-hip circumference ratio and body fat decreased
significantly and similarly in the two groups (Table 2)
. Abdominal fat analysis.
In both groups, total fat area determined by the abdominal CT images
decreased significantly after the test period (Table 2)
. The extent of
decrease in total fat was significantly greater in the DG group than
that in the TG group (Table 2)
. Visceral fat and subcutaneous fat areas
decreased significantly from baseline only in the DG group. Hence,
changes over the experimental periods differed between the groups
(Table 2)
. In the DG group, the visceral-to-subcutaneous fat area ratio
(V/S) decreased significantly after the test period, while no change
was observed in the TG group (Table 2)
.
Since we assigned the subjects into two groups randomly except that the
means of BMI and L-HU/S-HU were not different, the initial values for
some other variables such as total fat area and visceral fat area
incidentally differed between the groups. The initial value of visceral
fat in the DG group was significantly higher than that in the TG group.
Initial abundance of visceral fat area is significantly related to a
larger loss of visceral fat (Leenen et al. 1992
) after
body weight loss. In fact, a weak but significant correlation between
the initial values and the loss of visceral fat was observed in this
study (Fig. 1
). To clarify the effect of DG on body fat, the significance of the
effect on the variables that showed significant differences between the
groups at baseline, as examined by t test, was analyzed by
the analysis of covariance procedure. The changes from the baselines
for each group were analyzed using the baseline values as the
covariate. Analysis of covariance revealed that the decreases in total
fat and visceral fat were significantly greater in the DG group than
those in the TG group.
|
In the DG group, the L-HU/S-HU significantly increased after the test
period, indicating that hepatic fat content decreased during the test
period. The ratio in the TG group, on the other hand, did not change
(Table 2)
. However, there was no significant difference between the
groups in the change from the initial value.
Blood analysis.
Serum TG concentration tended to decrease from baseline in the TG group
(P = 0.08) (Table 3). FFA concentration in the DG group also decreased slightly
(P = 0.07). Other variables did not show any
significant intragroup changes or intergroup differences after the
treatment.
|
|
DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The initial values for total fat area and visceral fat area differed
significantly between the groups. The correlation between the initial
visceral fat area and the loss of visceral fat area after the treatment
was consistent with the results of Leenen et al. (1992)
. The analysis
of covariance, however, clearly demonstrated that in contrast to
ordinary TG oil, 1,3-DG-rich oil had beneficial effects on abdominal
obesity.
The present study was initially designed for the participants
to ingest 50 g/d of total fat, which is approximately equal to
the average daily fat intake for Japanese. However, the actual total
fat intake was 43 g/d (accounting for 21% of daily energy) in both DG
and TG groups. According to the 5th Recommended Dietary Allowances for
the Japanese (The Ministry of Health and Welfare 1994
), the fat
requirement for those engaged in level 1 (mild) activity is from 20 to
25% of daily energy. Although the total energy intake was not
restricted, body weight, body fat and total fat area in the umbilical
CT image decreased in both groups. It seemed that total fat and total
energy intakes of the subjects during the study period were less than
their habitual intakes before the study. Nevertheless, the reduction of
body weight, BMI, waist circumference total fat area, visceral fat
area, subcutaneous fat area and V/S was significantly greater in the DG
group than in the TG group.
When the 1,3-DG-rich and TG oils are given in equal amounts by weight,
fatty acid content of the DG diet theoretically is slightly lower than
that of the TG diet. The energy of the 1,3-DG-rich and TG oils
calculated by USDA Agriculture Handbook (Merrill and Watt 1955
, Reeves and Weihrauch 1979
) was 38.7 kJ/g
and 39.6 kJ/g, respectively. Since the amount of test oil consumed was
10 g/d, the difference of 0.9 kJ/g will produce a 9 kJ difference per
day. This corresponds to < 0.11% of the total energy intake
(7950 kJ/d). Thus, the effect of long-term DG ingestion is not due
to the reduced amount of the fatty acid in the test meals. Moreover,
the effect of DG cannot be attributed to the altered digestibility of
DG since there was no difference in the absorption between the two oils
as determined by the fecal excretion of the undigested lipids in rats
(Watanabe et al. 1997
). The significant decreases in
body weight, BMI, waist circumference and visceral fat in the DG group
are, rather, caused by the different metabolic features of DG and TG in
the small intestine as we described previously (Hara et al. 1993
, Murata et al. 1994
, Naito et al. 1997
).
We previously showed that the extent of postprandial serum TG increase,
especially chylomicron TG, after a single dose of DG emulsion was less
than that observed after a TG emulsion in humans (Naito et al. 1997
). Although the mechanism has not been fully elucidated,
impaired postprandial TG clearance was shown to be associated with
visceral obesity (Couillard et al. 1998
, Mekki et al. 1999
). Suppression of the extent of the postprandial serum
TG increase after a single dose of the DG emulsion, as compared to the
TG emulsion, may therefore at least partly explain the reduction of
visceral fat after repeated ingestion of the DG-rich oil.
We reported that 17 or 34 d ingestion of the DG diet caused a
reduction of serum TG concentration in rats compared to the TG diet
(Hara et al. 1993
). In addition, reduction of the enzyme
activities of fatty acid synthesis and concomitant increases of the
enzyme activities involved in the beta-oxidation were observed in
liver homogenates of rats fed DG as compared to those fed TG
(Murata et al. 1997
). Although the mechanism of DG
function in rats was discussed to some extent in our previous paper
(Hara et al. 1993
, Murata et al. 1997
),
it is necessary to carry out clinical trials using human subjects in
various clinical conditions to assess the field of application such as
diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia.
Recently, Nelson et al. (1996)
reported that body fat increases as
intake of dietary lipids increases. Among various types of fat
deposition, visceral fat-type obesity is one of the risk factors
for diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, hypertension
and atherosclerotic diseases (Fujikura et al. 1987
).
Therefore, reduction of such risk factors has become a matter of
interest for researchers and for obese and near-obese individuals.
The amount of test oil ingested in this study (10 g/d) was set to meet
the average of daily cooking oil consumption in Japan, where the daily
fat consumption is ~50 g. The effects of the DG-rich oil
described in the present study therefore can be achieved in daily life
if the cooking oil is simply replaced with the DG-rich oil.
Efficacy of the DG-rich oil for those consuming higher levels of
fat therefore needs to be evaluated in a different experiment since we
have not yet tested the dose-response relationship in humans.
In conclusion, we showed that DG, in contrast to TG, suppresses both body weight and regional fat deposition including visceral and hepatic fat in healthy men. DG, if used in place of the ordinary cooking oil, may be beneficial to health by suppressing visceral fat deposition.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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Manuscript received October 1, 1999. Initial review completed October 24, 1999. Revision accepted January 4, 2000.
|
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M. M. Kamphuis, D. J Mela, and M. S Westerterp-Plantenga Diacylglycerols affect substrate oxidation and appetite in humans Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2003; 77(5): 1133 - 1139. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. C Maki, M. H Davidson, R. Tsushima, N. Matsuo, I. Tokimitsu, D. M Umporowicz, M. R Dicklin, G. S Foster, K. A Ingram, B. D Anderson, et al. Consumption of diacylglycerol oil as part of a reduced-energy diet enhances loss of body weight and fat in comparison with consumption of a triacylglycerol control oil Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2002; 76(6): 1230 - 1236. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Murase, M. Aoki, T. Wakisaka, T. Hase, and I. Tokimitsu Anti-obesity effect of dietary diacylglycerol in C57BL/6J mice: dietary diacylglycerol stimulates intestinal lipid metabolism J. Lipid Res., August 1, 2002; 43(8): 1312 - 1319. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Yamamoto, H. Asakawa, K. Tokunaga, H. Watanabe, N. Matsuo, I. Tokimitsu, and N. Yagi Long-Term Ingestion of Dietary Diacylglycerol Lowers Serum Triacylglycerol in Type II Diabetic Patients with Hypertriglyceridemia J. Nutr., December 1, 2001; 131(12): 3204 - 3207. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Murase, T. Mizuno, T. Omachi, K. Onizawa, Y. Komine, H. Kondo, T. Hase, and I. Tokimitsu Dietary diacylglycerol suppresses high fat and high sucrose diet-induced body fat accumulation in C57BL/6J mice J. Lipid Res., March 1, 2001; 42(3): 372 - 378. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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