QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Purchase Article View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Niness, K. R. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Niness, K. R.

---

Supplement

Inulin and Oligofructose: What Are They?¹

Orafti Active Food Ingredients, Malvern, PA 19355

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
Inulin is a term applied to a heterogeneous blend of fructose polymers found widely distributed in nature as plant storage carbohydrates. Oligofructose is a subgroup of inulin, consisting of polymers with a degree of polymerization (DP) 10. Inulin and oligofructose are not digested in the upper gastrointestinal tract; therefore, they have a reduced caloric value. They stimulate the growth of intestinal bifidobacteria. They do not lead to a rise in serum glucose or stimulate insulin secretion. Several commercial grades of inulin are available that have a neutral, clean flavor and are used to improve the mouthfeel, stability and acceptability of low fat foods. Oligofructose has a sweet, pleasant flavor and is highly soluble. It can be used to fortify foods with fiber without contributing any deleterious organoleptic effects, to improve the flavor and sweetness of low calorie foods and to improve the texture of fat-reduced foods. Inulin and oligofructose possess several functional and nutritional properties, which may be used to formulate innovative healthy foods for today's consumer.

KEY WORDS: • inulin • oligofructose • dietary fiber • prebiotic • bifidogenic • fat reduction

	Natural occurrence

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
Inulin and oligofructose are natural food ingredients commonly found in varying percentages in dietary foods. They are present in >36,000 plant species (Carpita et al. 1989 ). In fact, it has been estimated that Americans consume on average 1–4 g of inulin and oligofructose per day and Europeans average 3–10 g/d (Van Loo et al. 1995 ). Inulin and oligofructose are present as plant storage carbohydrates in a number of vegetables and plants including wheat, onion, bananas, garlic and chicory.

	Raw material

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
Most of the inulin and oligofructose commercially available on the industrial food ingredient market today is either synthesized from sucrose or extracted from chicory roots. The chicory root is best known for its use as a coffee substitute (Pazola and Ciesbak 1979 ) and also as the root of the Belgian endive plant. The root of the Cichorium intybus plant contains ~15–20% inulin and 5–10% oligofructose.

	Manufacturing

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
The manufacturing process for inulin is rather similar to that of sugar extracted from sugar beets. The roots are typically harvested, sliced and washed. Inulin is then extracted from the root by using a hot water diffusion process, then purified and dried (Belval 1927 ). The resulting product has an average degree of polymerization (DP)² of 10–12 and a distribution of molecules with chain lengths from 2–60 units. The finished inulin powder typically contains 6–10% sugars represented as glucose, fructose and sucrose. These are native to the chicory root; they are not added after extraction.

A "high performance" (HP) type of inulin has also been made available recently to the market. This product is manufactured by removing the shorter-chain molecules. HP inulin has an average DP of 25 and a molecular distribution ranging from 11 to 60. Thus, the residual sugars as well as the oligomers have been removed. This product provides almost twice the fat mimetic characteristics of standard inulin with no sweetness contribution. Oligofructose is derived from chicory in much the same manner as inulin. The major difference is the addition of a hydrolysis step after extraction. Inulin is broken down using an inulase enzyme into chain lengths ranging from 2 to 10, with an average DP of 4. The resulting oligofructose product has ~30% of the sweetness of sucrose and contains ~5% glucose, fructose and sucrose on a dry solids basis. Oligofructose may also be synthesized from sucrose by transfructosylation, which is accomplished by means of an enzyme, ß-fructofuranosidase, that links additional fructose monomers to the sucrose molecule. Fructans formed in this manner contain 2–4 fructose units linked to a terminal glucose. The glucose and fructose molecules formed as by-products of the process, as well as any unreacted sucrose, may be removed with the use of chromatography (Crittenden et al. 1996 ). Typical commercial products contain 5% sugars.

	Chemical structure

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
Inulin is not simply one molecule; it is a polydisperse ß(21) fructan (Phelps 1965 ). The fructose units in this mixture of linear fructose polymers and oligomers are each linked by ß(21) bonds. A glucose molecule typically resides at the end of each fructose chain and is linked by an (12) bond, as in sucrose. The chain lengths of these fructans range from 2 to 60 units, with an average DP of ~10 (DeLeenheer and Hoebregs 1994 , IUB-IUPAC Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature 1982 , VanHaastrecht 1995 ). The unique aspect of the structure of inulin is its ß(21) bonds. These linkages prevent inulin from being digested like a typical carbohydrate and are responsible for its reduced caloric value and dietary fiber effects. Oligofructose is defined by the IUB-IUPAC Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature and the AOAC as fructose oligosaccharide containing 2–10 monosaccharide residues connected by glycosidic linkages (Hoebregs 1997 , IUB-IUPAC Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature 1982 ). Oligofructose derived from chicory contains both fructose chains (F_m) and fructose chains with terminal glucose units (GF_n). Synthesized oligofructose contains only fructose chains with glucose end units or GF_n molecules. Both types of oligofructose contain ß(21) linkages between the fructose molecules, and they both carry essentially the same nutritional benefits (Roberfroid et al. 1998 ).

	Functional properties

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
The differences in chain length between inulin and oligofructose account for their distinctly different functional attributes. Due to its longer chain length, inulin is less soluble than oligofructose and has the ability to form inulin microcrystals when sheared in water or milk. These crystals are not discretely perceptible in the mouth, but they interact to form a smooth creamy texture and provide a fat-like mouthfeel. Inulin has been used successfully to replace fat in table spreads, baked goods, fillings, dairy products, frozen desserts and dressings.

Oligofructose is composed of shorter-chain oligomers and possesses functional qualities similar to sugar or glucose syrup. It is actually more soluble than sucrose and provides ~30–50% of the sweetness of table sugar. Oligofructose contributes body to dairy products and humectancy to soft baked goods, depresses the freezing point in frozen desserts, provides crispness to low fat cookies, and acts as a binder in nutritional or granola bars, in much the same way as sugar, but with the added benefits of fewer calories, fiber enrichment and other nutritional properties. Oligofructose is often used in combination with high intensity sweeteners to replace sugar, provide a well-balanced sweetness profile and mask the aftertaste of aspartame or acesulfame k (Wiedmann and Jager 1997 ).

Both inulin and oligofructose are used worldwide to add fiber to food products. Unlike other fibers, they have no "off flavors" and may be used to add fiber without contributing viscosity. These properties allow the formulation of high fiber foods that look and taste like standard food formulations. It is an invisible way to add fiber to foods. Oligofructose is commonly used in cereals, fruit preparations for yogurt, frozen desserts, cookies and nutritional dairy products. The nutritional properties of inulin and oligofructose are similar; thus the decision to formulate with inulin vs. oligofructose is largely a function of the attributes desired in the finished product. For example, the use of high performance inulin would prove to be the method of choice when formulating a low fat table spread that has a creamy, fat-like mouthfeel with no added sweetness. Conversely, when formulating a low calorie fruit preparation for yogurts using high intensity sweeteners, oligofructose could enhance the fruit flavor, balance the sweetness profile and mask any undesirable aftertaste. Another added benefit of oligofructose that is often capitalized on in yogurt is the prebiotic effect, which may serve to reinforce or enhance the action of probiotic cultures typically added to yogurt.

	Nutritional properties

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 
Perhaps the most interesting and exciting aspects of inulin and oligofructose are their nutritional properties.

Caloric value.

Inulin and oligofructose have been used in many countries to replace fat or sugar and reduce the calories of foods such as ice cream, dairy products, confections and baked goods. Inulin and oligofructose have lower caloric values than typical carbohydrates due to the ß(21) bonds linking the fructose molecules. These bonds render them nondigestible by human intestinal enzymes. Thus, inulin and oligofructose pass through the mouth, stomach and small intestine without being metabolized. This has been proven by many scientific studies (Kuppers-Sonnenberg 1952 , Lewis 1912 , Okey 1919 , Nilsson et al. 1988 , Rumessen et al. 1990 , Ziesenitz and Siebert 1987 ), including studies on ileostomy volunteers (Ellegard et al. 1997 , Knudsen and Hessov 1995 ). These studies indicate that almost all of the inulin or oligofructose ingested enters the colon where it is totally fermented by the colonic microflora. The energy derived from fermentation is largely a result of the production of short-chain fatty acids and lactate, which are metabolized and contribute 1.5 kcal/g of useful energy for both oligofructose and inulin. Other by-products of fermentation include bacterial biomass and gases that are eventually excreted. Due to the nondigestibility of inulin and oligofructose, they were found to be suitable for consumption by diabetics. Researchers found no influence on serum glucose, no stimulation of insulin secretion and no influence on glucagon secretion (Beringer and Wenger 1995 , Sanno et al. 1984 ). Inulin has a long history of use by diabetics (Lewis 1912 , Persia 1905 ) and in fact has been reported to benefit diabetic patients in high doses (40–100g/d) (McCance and Lawrence 1929 , Root and Baker 1925 , Strauss 1911 , Wise and Hey 1931 ).

Dietary fiber.

Another important nutritional attribute of inulin and oligofructose is their action as dietary fibers. Dietary fibers may be defined in two ways: by an analytical approach and a physiological one.

The analytical definition of dietary fiber used by the AOAC is "remnants of plant cells resistant to hydrolysis by the alimentary enzymes of man" (Trowel and Burkitt 1986 ). Inulin and oligofructose certainly fall under this definition and are now measured analytically with the use of the recently approved AOAC Fructan Method 977.08 (Hoebregs 1997 ). Although there is no official list of physiologic functions that a fiber should possess to meet the definition of fiber, generally accepted physiologic effects of fiber include an effect on intestinal function and the improvement of blood lipid parameters. Dietary fibers also typically have a reduced caloric value.

Inulin and oligofructose influence intestinal function by increasing stool frequency, particularly in constipated patients, (Gibson et al. 1995 , Hidaka et al. 1986 , Menne et al. 1997 , Shimoyama et al. 1984 ) increasing stool weight (Gibson et al. 1995 , Oku and Tokunaga 1984 ) as much as 2 g per gram of inulin or oligofructose ingested and decreasing fecal pH (Gibson and Roberfroid 1995 , Menne et al. 1997 ), which has been linked to suppression of the production of putrefactive substances in the colon. Additionally, they reportedly decreased serum triglycerides and blood cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients (Brighenti et al. 1995 , Fiordaliso et al. 1995 , Hata et al. 1983 , Hidaka et al. 1986 , Kok et al. 1996 , Mitsuoka et al. 1986 , Sanno 1986 , Yamashita et al. 1984 ).

From an analytical and a physiologic point of view, both inulin and oligofructose should be classed as fibers (Graham and Aman 1986 , Knudsen et al. 1995 , Lee and Prosky 1995 , Nilsson et al. 1988 , Roberfroid 1993 ).

Bifidus stimulation.

Perhaps the best-known nutritional effects of inulin and oligofructose are their actions to stimulate bifidobacteria growth in the intestine. The colon is known to be a complex ecosystem with >400 different types of bacteria. Some strains have pathogenic effects such as the production of toxins and carcinogens, whereas others are considered to provide a health-promoting function. Among those bacteria that are thought to promote health are Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria. Nourishing beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacteria, with inulin or oligofructose allows them to "outcompete" potential detrimental organisms and thereby potentially contribute to the health of the host. Health benefits ascribed to Bifidobacteria include the following: inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulating of components of the immune system and aiding the absorption of certain ions and the synthesis of B vitamins. The bifidogenic effect of inulin and oligofructose has been well proven (Bouhnik et al. 1994 , Djouzi and Andrieux 1997 , Gibson et al. 1995 , Gibson and Roberfroid 1995 , Hidaka et al. 1986 , Kleessen et al. 1994 , Menne et al. 1997 , Mitsuoka 1986 , Mitsukoa et al. 1987 , Roberfroid et al. 1998 , Sanno 1986 , Shimoyama et al. 1984 , Takahashi 1986 ). Dramatic positive shifts in the composition of microflora have been shown through in vivo human studies at doses between 5 and 20 g/d, generally over a 15-d period (Fig. 1 : Gibson et al. 1995 ), (Kleessen et al. 1994 , Menne et al. 1997 , Wang 1993 , Wang and Gibson 1993 ). The bifidogenic effects of different forms of inulin and oligofructose are bifidogenic independent of chain length or GF_n and F_m type (Gibson et al. 1995 , Roberfroid et al. 1998 ).

View larger version (45K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Shifts in the distribution of fecal microflora in humans provided a diet without and with supplemental inulin. Source: Gibson et al. (1995) .

In addition to calorie and fat reduction, fiber effects, lipid modulation and bifidus stimulation, the results of studies have also indicated positive effects on calcium absorption in rats and humans and cancer prevention in animals. It has been shown in over 10 studies that inulin and oligofructose increase both the absorption and the deposition of calcium in the bones of rats and humans (Coudray et al. 1997 , Delzenne and Roberfroid 1994 , Lemort and Roberfroid 1997 , Ohta et al. 1993 , Ohta et al. 1995 and Ohta et al. 1997 , Scholz-Ahrens et al. 1998 , Shimura et al. 1991 , Taguchi et al. 1995 , Van den Heuvel et al. 1997 ). There are promising indications that inulin and oligofructose may contribute to the prevention of osteoporosis.

Results of recent studies that have been completed in animals suggest that inulin and oligofructose may also play a role in the prevention and inhibition of colon and breast cancer. These are early studies and further studies will be completed, but initial results look promising (Cooper and Carter 1986 , Gallaher et al. 1996 , Koo and Rao 1991 , Reddy et al. 1997 , Roland et al. 1994a, 1994b, 1995 and1996 , Rowland et al. 1998 , Taper et al. 1995 and1997 ).

Importance to the food industry today.

Unquestionably, inulin and oligofructose have many interesting nutritional and functional attributes that are useful in formulating the foods of today and tomorrow. Today's consumers hold high standards for the foods they consume. They demand foods that taste great, are fat- and/or calorie-reduced, and they are interested in foods that provide added health benefits. Of course, it is expected that these foods will be convenient and affordable. The desire of consumers to look good and stay healthy in a fast-paced environment is becoming more difficult to fulfill. Quick fixes and shortcuts are attractive to the consumer, whether they refer to food preparation, weight loss or disease prevention. Time is a most precious commodity. Consumers are also more informed and more aware of the links between diet and health than ever before. Consequently they are looking for foods to provide multiple benefits as well as good taste.

America's leading health concerns are heart disease, cancer, stress, high cholesterol, weight control, osteoporosis and diabetes (Gilbert and Sloan 1998 ), and the number one health-related interest among food shoppers is "boosting the immune system" (Gilbert and Sloan 1998 ). This speaks to a strong focus on disease prevention and indicates that the time is right for optimizing health by the use of food components such as inulin and oligofructose.

In conclusion, inulin and oligofructose are widely used in functional foods throughout the world for their health-promoting and technological properties. They are ingredients of the future that meet the needs of the food industry today, and are on the leading edge of the emerging trend toward functional foods.

	FOOTNOTES

 
¹ Presented at the conference Nutritional and Health Benefits of Inulin and Oligofructose held May 18–19, 1998 in Bethesda, MD. This symposium was supported in part by educational grants from the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Orafti Technical Service. Published as a supplement to The Journal of Nutrition. Guest editors for the symposium publication were John A. Milner, The Pennsylvania State University, and Marcel Roberfroid, Louvain University, Brussels, Belgium.

² Abbreviations used: DP, degree of polymerization F_m, fructose chains; GF_n, fructose chains with terminal glucose; HP, high performance.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT Natural occurrence Raw material Manufacturing Chemical structure Functional properties Nutritional properties REFERENCES

 

1. Belval H. Industrie de l'inuline et du lévulose. Dix Ans d'Efforts Scientifiques, Industriels et Coloniaux 1914–1924 1927:1068-1069 Chimie et Industrie Paris, France.

2. Beringer A., Wenger R. Inulin in der ernährung des diabetikers. Dtsch. Z. Verdauungs Stofwechselkrankh 1995;15:268-272

3. Bouhnik Y., Flourié B., Ouarne F., Riottot M., Bisetti N, Bornet F., Rambaud J. Effects of prolonged ingestion of fructo-oligosaccharides on colonic bifidobacteria, fecal enzymes and bile acids in humans. Gastroenterology 1994;106:A598(abs.)

4. Brighenti, F., Casiraghi, M. C., Canzi, E., Ferrari, A. & Testolin, G. (1995) One month consumption of ready-to-eat breakfast cereal containing inulin markedly lowers serum lipids in normolipidemic men. 7th European Nutrition Conference, May 24–28, Vienna, Austria.

5. Butel M. J, Roland N., Hibert A., Popot F., Favre A., Tessedre A. C., Bensaada M., Rimbault A., Szylit O. Clostridial pathogenicity in experimental necrotising enterocolitis in gnotobiotic quails and protective role of bifidobacteria. J. Med. Microbiol. 1997;47:391-399[Abstract]

6. Carpita N. C., Kanabus J., Housley T. L. Linkage structure of fructans and fructan oligomers from Triticum aestivum and Festuca arundinacea leaves. J. Plant Physiol. 1989;134:162-168

7. Cooper P., Carter M. The anti-melanoma activity of inulin in mice. Mol. Immunol. 1986;23:903-908[Medline]

8. Coudray C., Bellanger J., Castiglia-Delavaud C., Rémésy C., Vermorel M., Rayssignuier Y. Effect of soluble or partly soluble dietary fibres supplementation on absorption and balance of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in healthy young men. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997;51:375-380[Medline]

9. Coussement, P. (1997) "Powerful products": the world of ingredients, August, pp. 12–17.

10. Crittenden R., Planyne M. Production, properties and applications of food grade oligosaccharides. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1996;7:357

11. DeLeenheer L., Hoebregs H. Progress in the elucidation of the composition of chicory inulin. Starch 1994;46:193

12. Delzenne N., Roberfroid M. Physiological effects of non-digestible oligosaccharides. Lebensm.-Wiss. Technol. 1994;27:1-6

13. Djouzi, Z. (1995) Influence des Probiotiques et des Prebiotiques sur la Composition et le Metabolisme de la Microflore Humaine Implantée chez le rat Heteroxenique. Doctoral thesis, INRA-Jouy-en-Josas, France.

14. Djouzi Z., Andrieux C. Compared effects of three oligosaccharides on metabolism of intestinal microflora in rats inoculated with a human faecal flora. Br. J. Nutr. 1997;78:313-324[Medline]

15. Ellegard L., Andersson H., Bosaeus I. Inulin and oligofructose do not influence the absorption of cholesterol, and the excretion of cholesterol, Fe, Ca, Mg, and bile acids but increase energy excretion in man. A blinded, controlled cross-over study in ileostomy subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997;51:1-5[Medline]

16. Fiordaliso M, Kok N., Desager J., Goethals F, Deboyser D., Roberfroid M., Delzenne N. Dietary oligofructose lowers triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol in serum and very low density lipoproteins in rats. Lipids 1995;30:163-167[Medline]

17. Gallagher D., Stallings W., Blessing L., Busta F., Brady L. Probiotics, cecal microflora and aberrant crypts in the rat colon. J. Nutr. 1996;126:1362-1371

18. Gibson G. R., Beatty E. R., Wang X., Cummings J. H. Selective stimulation of bifidobacteria in the human colon by oligofructose and inulin. Gastroenterology 1995;108:975-982[Medline]

19. Gibson G. R., Roberfroid M.B. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota—introducing the concept of prebiotics. J. Nutr. 1995;125:1401-1412

20. Gilbert L., Sloan E. Food industry forecast: consumer trends to 2020 and beyond. Food Technol 1998;1:37-44

21. Graham H., Aman P. Composition and digestion in the pig gastrointestinal tract of Jerusalem artichoke tubers. Food Chem 1986;22:67-76

22. Hata Y., Hara T., Oikawa T., Yamamoto M., Hirose N., Nagashima T., Torihama N., Nakajima K., Watanabe A., Yamashita M. The effect of fructo-oligosaccharides (Neosugar) on lipidemia. Geriatr. Med. 1983;21:156-167

23. Hidaka H., Eida T., Takizawa T., Tokunaga T., Tashiro Y. Effects of fructo-oligosaccharides on intestinal flora and human health. Bifidobacteria Microflora 1986;5:37-50

24. Hoebregs H. Fructans in foods and food products, ion-exchange chromatographic method: collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. Int. 1997;80:1029-1037

25. IUB-IUPAC Joint Commission of Biochemical Nomenclature Abbreviated terminology of oligosaccharide chains. J. Biol. Chem. 1982;257:3347-3351[Free Full Text]

26. Kleesen B., Noack J., Zunft H. J. Effect of inulin on colonic bifidobacteria of elderly man. FASEB J 1994;8:A185(abs.)

27. Knudsen K.E.B., Hessov I. Recovery of inulin from Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) in the small intestine of man. Br. J. Nutr. 1995;74:101-113[Medline]

28. Kok N., Roberfroid M., Robert T., Delzenne N. Involvement of lipogenesis in the lower VLDL secretion induced by oligofructose in rats. J. Nutr. 1996;126:881-890

29. Koo M., Rao V. Long-term effect of bifidobacteria and neosugar on precursor lesions of colonic cancer in CF1 mice. Nutr. Cancer 1991;16:249-257[Medline]

30. Küppers-Sonnenberg G. A. Inulin und Lävulose der Topinambour- Ihr einsatz in der Ernährung und Pharmazie. Zucker 1952;5:30-33

31. Lee S., Prosky L. International survey on dietary fiber: definition, analysis and reference materials. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. Int. 1995;78:22-36

32. Lewis, H. B. (1912) The value of inulin as a foodstuff. J. Am. Med. Assoc. April 20, pp. 1176–1177.

33. Lemort, C. & Roberfroid, M. (1997) Effect of Chicory Fructooligosaccharides on Ca Balance. Book of Abstracts, NDO Symposium, p. 163. December 4–5, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

34. McCance R. A., Lawrence R.D. The carbohydrate content of foods—inulin and the fructosans. Medical Research Council, Special Report Series 1929;135:58

35. Menne, E., Guggenbühl, M., Absolonne, J. & DuPont, A. (1997) Prebiotic effect of the (fructosyl-fructose) F_m-type inulin hydrolysate in humans. Book of Abstracts, NDO Symposium, p. 164. December 4–5, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

36. Mitsuoka, T., Hata, Y. & Takahashi, Y. (1986) Effects of long-term intake of Neosugar on intestinal flora and serum lipids. Proc. 3rd Neosugar Research Conference, Tokyo, Japan, Topic 1–4.

37. Mitsuoka T., Hidaka H., Eida T. Effect of fructo-oligosaccharides on intestinal microflora. Nahrung 1987;31:426-436

38. Nilsson U., Öste R., Jägerstad M., Birkhed D. Cereal fructans: in vitro and in vivo studies on availability in rats and humans. J. Nutr. 1988;119:1325-1330

39. Ohta A., Baba S., Ohtsuki M., Takizawa T., Adachi T., Hara H. In vivo absorption of calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide from the large intestine in rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1997;43:35-46

40. Ohta A., Ohtsuki M., Baba S., Takizawa T., Adachi T., Kimura S. Effects of fructooligosaccharides on the absorption of iron, calcium and magnesium in iron-deficient anemia rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1995;43:281-291

41. Ohta A., Osakabe N., Yamada K., Saito Y., Hidaka H. The influence of fructooligosaccharides and various other oligosaccharides on the absorption of Ca, Mg and P in rats. J. Jpn. Soc. Nutr. Food Sci. 1993;46:123-129

42. Okey R. Studies on the behavior of inulin in the animal body-II. Inulin in the alimentary canal. J. Biol. Chem. 1919;39:149-162[Free Full Text]

43. Oku, T. & Tokunaga, R. (1984) Improvement of metabolism: effect of fructo-oligosaccharides on rat intestine. Proc. 2nd Neosugar Research Conference, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 53–65.

44. Pazola Z., Cieslak J. Changes in carbohydrates during the production of coffee substitute extracts especially in the roasting processes. Food Chem 1979;4:41

45. Persia (1905) Reference of Lewis 1912. Nuova Revista Clin. Therapeut., p. 8.

46. Phelps C. F. The physical properties of inulin solutions. J. Biochemistry 1965;95:41

47. Reddy D. S., Hamid R., Rao C. V. Effect of dietary oligofructose and inulin on colonic preneoplastic aberrant crypt foci inhibition. Carcinogenesis 1997;18:1371-1374[Abstract/Free Full Text]

48. Roberfroid M. B. Dietary fiber, inulin and oligofructose: a review comparing their physiological effects. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1993;33:103-148[Medline]

49. Roberfroid M. B., Bornet F., Bouley C., Cummings J. H. Colonic microflora: nutrition and health. Nutr. Rev. 1995;53:127-130[Medline]

50. Roberfroid M. B., Van Loo J., Gibson G. R. The bifidogenic nature of chicory inulin and its hydrolysis products. J. Nutr. 1998;128:11-19[Abstract/Free Full Text]

51. Roland N., Nugon-Baudon L., Andrieuz C., Szylit O. Comparative study of the fermentative characteristics of inulin and different types of fibre in rats inoculated with a human whole faecal flora. Br. J. Nutr. 1995;74:239-249[Medline]

52. Roland N., Nugon-Baudon L., Flinois J., Beaune P. Hepatic and intestinal cytochrome P-450, glutathione-S-transferase and UDP-glucuronosyl transferase are affected by six types of dietary fiber in rats inoculated with human whole fecal flora. J. Nutr. 1994;124:1581-1587

53. Roland, N., Nugon-Baudon, L. & Szylit, O. (1994) Influence of dietary fibers on two intestinal transferases in rats inoculated with a whole human faecal flora. INRA(UEPSD) Bat. 440 78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France.

54. Roland N., Rabot S., Nugon-Baudon L. Modulation of the biological effects of glucosinolates by inulin and oat fibre in gnotobiotic rats inoculated with a human whole faecal flora. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1996;36:671-677

55. Root H. F., Baker M. L. Inulin and artichokes in the treatment of diabetes. Arch. Intern. Med. 1925;36:126-145

56. Rowland I. R., Rumney C. J., Coutts J. T., Lievense L. C. Effect of Bifidobacterium longum and inulin on gut bacterial metabolism and carcinogen-induced aberrant crypt foci in rats. Carcinogenesis 1998;19:281-285[Abstract/Free Full Text]

57. Rumessen J. J., Bodé S., Hamberg O., Gudmand-Hoyer E. Fructans of Jerusalem artichokes: intestinal transport, absorption, fermentation and influence on blood glucose, insulin and C-peptide responses in healthy subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990;52:675-681[Abstract/Free Full Text]

58. Sanno, T. (1986) Effects of Neosugar on constipation, intestinal microflora and gallbadder contraction in diabetics. Proc. 3rd Neosugar Research Conference, Tokyo, Japan.

59. Sanno, T., Ishikawa, M., Nozawa, Y., Hoshi, K. & Someya, K. (1984) Application of Neosugar P for diabetic subjects. The effect of Neosugar P on blood glucose. Proc. 2nd Neosugar Research Conference, Tokyo, Japan.

60. Scholz-Ahrens K., van Loo J., Schrezenmeir J. Effect of oligofructose on bone mineralization in ovariectomized rats is affected by dietary calcium 1998 Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Federal Dairy Research Centre Kiel, Germany, Orafti, Tienen, Belgium.

61. Shimoyama, T., Hori, N., Kawaura, A., Shiomi, H., Shoya, T., Hirakawa, H. & Yamazaki, K. (1984) Relationship between Neosugar P and chronic constipation. Proc. 2nd Neosugar Research Conference, Toyko, Japan, Topic 3–2.

62. Shimura S., Saeki Y., Ito Y., Suzuki K., Shiro G. Effects of galactooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides on mineral utilization in rats. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 1991;44:287-291

63. Strauss H. Zur verwendung inulinreicher Gemüse bei Diabetikern. Ther. GGW 1911;III:347-351

64. Taguchi A., Ohta A., Abe M., Baba S., Ohtsuki M., Takizawa T., Yuda Y., Adachi T. The influence of fructo-oligosaccharides on the bone of mdel rats with ovariectomized osteoporosis. Sci. Rep. Meiji Seika Kaisha 1995;33:37-44

65. Takahashi, Y. (1986) Effects of Neosugar in the chronic renal failure patient. Proc. 3rd Neosugar Research Conference, Tokyo, Japan, Topic 1–3.

66. Taper H. S., Delzenne N., Roberfroid M. Growth inhibition of transplantable mouse tumors by non-digestible carbohydrates. Int. J. Can. 1997;71:1109-1112[Medline]

67. Taper H. S., Delzenne N., Tshilombo A., Roberfroid M. Protective effect of dietary fructo-oligosaccharide in young rats against exocrine pancreas atrophy induced by high fructose and parital copper deficiency. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1995;33:631-639[Medline]

68. Trowel H., Burkitt D. Physiological role of dietary fiber: a ten year review. J. Dent. Child. 1986;vol 53:444-447

69. Van Den Heuvel E., Muys T., Van Dokkum W., Schaafsma G. Fructo oligosaccharides stimulate calcium absorption in adolescents 1997 TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute Tienen, Belgium.

70. Van Loo J., Coussement P., DeLeenheer L., Hoebregs H., Smits G. On the presence of inulin and oligofructose as natural ingredients in the Western diet. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1995;35:525-552

71. VanHaastrecht J. Promising performers; oligosaccharides present new product development opportunities for a wide range of processed foods. Int. Food Ingredients. 1995;No. 1:23-27

72. Wang, X. (1993) Comparative Aspects of Carbohydrate Fermentation by Colonic Bacteria. Doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.

73. Wang X., Gibson G. R. Effects of the in vitro fermentation of oligofructose and inulin by bacteria growing in the human large intestine. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1993;75:373-380[Medline]

74. Weidmann M., Jager M. Synergistic sweetners. Food Ingredients Int 1997;Nov.-Dec:51-56

75. Wise E. C., Heyl F. W. Failure of a diabetic to utilize inulin. J. Am. Pharm. Soc. 1931;20:26-29

76. Yamashita K., Kawai K., Itakura M. Effects of fructo-oligosaccharides on blood glucose and serum lipids in diabetic subjects. Nutr. Res. 1984;4:961-966

77. Ziesenitz S. C., Siebert G. In vitro assessment of nystose as a sugar substitute. J. Nutr. 1987;117:846-851

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Purchase Article View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Niness, K. R. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Niness, K. R.