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Rockville, Maryland
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INTRODUCTION |
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EARLY YEARS (BLANCHARD AND STATE COLLEGE, PA.; 1907–1929) |
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Upon graduating from State College High School in 1924, Harold Williams enrolled in Pennsylvania State College,2 the land-grant college of Pennsylvania. During the early part of his undergraduate studies in agricultural chemistry, he continued to work at the restaurant in State College. By then, he was assistant chef and responsible for the on-premise baking; however, his income from part-time work was insufficient. He therefore took a 1-y leave of absence to work full-time with the college's Institute of Animal Nutrition. In addition to the money earned during the 1927–28 academic year, he gained invaluable laboratory experience working under the tutelage of a pioneer in animal calorimetry, Dr. Ernest Forbes (1876–1966).
During the ensuing academic year (1928–29), Harold Williams resumed his undergraduate studies and worked on a project with Prof. R. Adams Dutcher (1886–1962), head of the Department of Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. Professor Dutcher recognized Harold Williams's potential and encouraged him to apply to Cornell University for graduate studies. He was offered a graduate assistantship beginning in September 1929.
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GRADUATE STUDIES (ITHACA, N.Y.; 1929–1933) |
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). The metabolism of
these nutrients and the body's requirements for them became areas of
research from which another wave of important findings began to flow. When Harold Williams arrived at Cornell, his mentor, Dr. Leonard Maynard (1887–1972), had recently begun a long-term project dealing with the biology and chemistry of lactation in rats, goats, and cows. He and his associates were focusing on the fatty acids, phospholipids, and cholesterol in blood prior to parturition and during lactation. (At the time, the methodology for blood analysis was in its infancy.)
For his thesis project, Harold Williams studied the influence of
various dietary fats on the distribution of lipids in the blood of
lactating goats. He found, in general, that the constant withdrawal of
blood lipids for the secretion of milk does not alter circulatory
lipids, even if the normal pattern of blood lipids has previously been
changed by dietary means. His findings, published in the Journal
of Dairy Science (Williams and Maynard 1934
), represented an
important facet of the overall conclusion that emerged from the
pioneering Cornell studies on lactation; i.e., dietary fat is a potent
factor governing the composition and yield of milk.
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POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (NEW HAVEN, CONN.; 1933–1935) |
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Dr. Williams presented his initial results as an abstract at the First
Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Nutrition
(AIN),3
held in New York City (Williams et al. 1934
). In follow-up studies, he
found that the ratio of plasma cholesterol in the free state to
cholesterol combined as esters of fatty acids is the same in male and
female rats, and similar to the ratio reported for human plasma
(Williams et al. 1937
).
In addition to doing laboratory research, Dr. Williams collaborated
with a colleague on a review article concerning dietary lipids,
published in Physiological Reviews (Anderson and Williams 1937
). They surveyed more than 200 papers, many by foreign authors.
These papers transcended scientific as well as national boundaries.
Some were from agricultural scientists, who had carried out animal
feeding experiments with a view towards raising healthier, more
productive animals; others were written by physician-scientists, who
were interested, for example, in dietary lipids appropriate for
patients suffering from diabetes.
At Yale, Dr. Williams often modified the published chemical methods he used to identify and measure the constituents of blood and other tissues. This reflected both his creativity and the influence of his former mentor at Cornell (Dr. Maynard), who staunchly believed in training his graduate students as chemists. Innovations in analytical chemistry remained a hallmark of Dr. Williams's research career.
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RESEARCH ON CHILD AND MATERNAL NUTRITION (DETROIT, MICH.; 1935–1945) |
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TOPINTRODUCTIONEARLY YEARS (BLANCHARD AND...GRADUATE STUDIES (ITHACA, N.Y.;...POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (NEW HAVEN,...RESEARCH ON CHILD AND...RESEARCH IN NUTRITION AND...TEACHING AND ADMINISTRATIVE...RETIREMENT YEARS (ITHACA, N.Y.;...REFERENCES |
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Things went well for Dr. Williams at the Children's Fund of Michigan. He applied his expertise in chemistry to practical problems in maternal health and child development, and his research with Dr. Macy spawned a rewarding scientific association. This association grew into a lifelong friendship, one that included Dr. Williams's family. The anticipated brief sojourn in Michigan turned into a 10-y stay. During Dr. Williams's final 3 y in Detroit, he served as associate director of the Research Laboratory.
While at the Children's Fund of Michigan, Dr. Williams was the author or coauthor of more than 50 papers. About half of them were published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry or The Journal of Nutrition on topics such as micromethods for determining phospholipids, utilization of vitamins during lactation, and the sulfur amino acid content of blood. The remaining publications dealt mainly with a study on human milk, carried out in cooperation with the staff of The Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit.
Most of the results from the human milk study were published in the American Journal of Diseases of Children and in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association during the early and middle 1940s. These data made it possible to estimate the proportions of nutrients in secretions from the human breast (colostrum through mature milk) and to use those estimates in the evaluation of milk formulated for infants with cow or goat milk. The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, which had been created in 1940, also used these data in establishing the human requirements for protein and amino acids.
Dr. Williams was the coauthor of a book entitled Hidden
Hunger, which was published at the end of World War II (Macy and Williams 1945
). The key factor prompting the writing of this book was
the massive subclinical nutritional deficiencies that had come to light
in the early 1940s. At that time, virtually all of the nation's young
men4
had to undergo physical examination for conscription into the armed
services; many were found to be unfit because of inadequate nutrition
during their formative years, which coincided with the widespread
poverty of the Great Depression. The book had two main themes:
a) proper maternal nutrition before conception and during
pregnancy and b) adequate nourishment of infants and
children. Drs. Macy and Williams underscored the fact that,
nutritionally, an infant is 9 mo old at birth when carried full-term.
In the final chapter, "Food for Thought," they highlighted the role
that America's agricultural abundance and expertise could play in
keeping the peace globally.
Dr. Macy always felt that Dr. Williams was on loan from Cornell University. Hence, she was not surprised when he told her early in 1945 that he had accepted an offer to become professor of biochemistry in Cornell's newly established Department of Biochemistry. When Dr. Williams left Detroit, Dr. Macy gave him a copy of Hidden Hunger with this handwritten inscription on its inside cover:
May [these] pages be a reminder of my high regard for your outstanding services in the Research Laboratory, Children's Fund of Michigan and of the 10 happy years we have been privileged to plan and work together towards the advancement of science and "the promotion of the health, welfare, and happiness and development of the children of the State of Michigan primarily, and elsewhere in the world."5
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RESEARCH IN NUTRITION AND BIOCHEMISTRY (ITHACA, N.Y.; 1945–1973) |
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Dr. Williams published most of his 147 research papers6 while he was at Cornell. All were in nutritional biochemistry; however, the topics were diverse, ranging from domestic animal feeding experiments to enzymatic studies in bacteria. This diversity reflected the rich opportunities for research collaborations that Dr. Williams found at Cornell, together with his ability to recognize and take advantage of them. Among Dr. Williams's numerous gifts was his capacity to form enduring partnerships with colleagues both within and outside his department (and the university).
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Dr. Williams and his colleagues
published more than a dozen papers on amino acid requirements of
piglets, based on the food intake needed to produce normal growth.
Simultaneously, Dr. Williams pursued an alternative approach, one in
which he determined the requirements for essential amino acids through
assays of young rat, chick, and piglet carcasses. This research,
published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry (Williams et al. 1954
), is noteworthy because of the close agreement between
results obtained through carcass analyses and those derived from
feeding experiments. Dr. Williams and his coauthors concluded that
carcass analysis was a valid method for evaluating the growth
requirements for most, if not all, essential amino acids.
Dr. Williams also collaborated with colleagues from the Department of
Animal Husbandry in studies of the nitrogenous needs of ruminants. This
work included research on the conversion of urea nitrogen into amino
acids in the rumen and the development of a new method for the study of
rumen digestion in vitro (Louw et al. 1949
).
Several years after arriving on the Ithaca campus, Dr. Williams gave support to Dr. Charlotte Young (1910–1979), professor of medical nutrition at the School of Nutrition, and Dr. Norman Moore (1901–1995), director of Cornell University Health Services, in conducting a nutritional survey in Groton Township, N.Y. To enhance the credibility of their survey, Drs. Young, Moore, and Williams collected data resulting from physical examinations of 600 participating subjects and from chemical analyses of blood drawn from them.
Dr. Williams and his assistants measured the levels of serum protein,
hemoglobin, ascorbic acid, carotene, and vitamin A. Levels of ascorbic
acid, carotene, and vitamin A were found to be positively correlated
with family income; the higher the income, the greater the use of foods
providing these nutrients. Dr. Williams's paper (Williams et al. 1951
), one of six reporting the outcome of various aspects of the
survey, also discussed the importance and potential of the micromethods
he employed in his blood analyses.
In keeping with the mandate of land-grant colleges (i.e., teaching, research, and extension), some of Dr. Williams's research was service-oriented. In his curriculum vitae, he listed such research as "extension-type duties." One example was his research on blood samples from farm workers exposed to organic phosphorus insecticides in a fruit-growing region of New York (Wayne County). Research had shown that absorption of organic phosphorus insecticides through the skin or by inhalation or ingestion leads to destruction of cholinesterase in tissues. Although slight changes in the blood and tissue levels of this enzyme are usually asymptomatic, severe reductions depress the central nervous system, leading to coma and respiratory failure.
The blood analyses carried out by Dr. Williams and his assistants
revealed that 10% of the farm workers had below-normal levels of
cholinesterase activity (Fryer and Williams 1956
). The overall results
from this project, reported in several publications, highlighted the
health hazards associated with organic phosphorus insecticides and the
need to take protective measures (such as respirator, gloves, and
coveralls) when applying the insecticides.
In another extension-type study, Dr. Williams quantitated the essential amino acids in numerous feedstuffs that were commonly used as a source of protein for domestic animals. On the basis of his figures, nutritionists were able to select feedstuffs and blend them together in amounts that more precisely met the animals' amino acid requirements. According to Dr. Malden Nesheim, provost emeritus and professor emeritus of nutrition at Cornell, "[Dr. Williams's] publication of the analytical values for amino acids in feedstuffs was an extremely valuable contribution, coming as it did before the extensive development of ion exchange chromatography for amino acid analysis."
During the course of several years, Dr. Williams and his assistants had
painstakingly refined and standardized microbiological systems to assay
almost 70 feedstuffs. When he published a 37-page booklet listing the
amino acid contents of feedstuffs (1955
), requests for his booklet were
prodigious. Two factors fueled the demand: the need for this
information7
and the comprehensiveness of his report.
Dr. Williams continued to employ microbiological procedures in his
research on selenium metabolism, which he and his graduate students
began after selenium was reported to be an essential trace element
(Schwarz and Foltz 1957
). Dr. Williams became interested in selenium
because of the range of concentrations within which this element
exhibits biological activity as an essential nutrient—or as a toxic
substance. One of the early papers on selenium metabolism from Dr.
Williams' laboratory demonstrated that Escherichia coli is
capable of incorporating inorganic selenium into proteins as
selenomethionine (Tuve and Williams 1961
). Later, Dr. Williams and his
graduate students measured the activity of several enzymes of E.
coli to gain insight into selenium's toxicity (Ahluwalia and Williams 1966
, Scala et al. 1964
).
Because Dr. Williams was widely recognized as a distinguished scientist, he was invited to serve on many advisory boards, including the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Institutes of Health Nutrition Study Section, and the United Nation's FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) Expert Panel on Milk Quality. He served on the editorial board of The Journal of Nutrition and as an overseas correspondent of Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, published in Aberdeen, Scotland. He also served as a consultant to the US Departments of Agriculture and the Interior. During the 1960s, he represented the American Society of Biological Chemists on a biochemical nomenclature committee of the National Research Council.
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TEACHING AND ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES (ITHACA, N.Y.; 1945–1973) |
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TOPINTRODUCTIONEARLY YEARS (BLANCHARD AND...GRADUATE STUDIES (ITHACA, N.Y.;...POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (NEW HAVEN,...RESEARCH ON CHILD AND...RESEARCH IN NUTRITION AND...TEACHING AND ADMINISTRATIVE...RETIREMENT YEARS (ITHACA, N.Y.;...REFERENCES |
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While at Cornell, Dr. Williams counseled from 10 to 25 undergraduate students each year: first, in the College of Agriculture; after 1964, in the Division of Biological Sciences. He also served as a member of the Advisory Committee for Premedical Students from the time of its inception in 1966 through his retirement years. Dr. Williams was a wise counselor who made himself available. He participated with others in making the Cornell campus a caring place, both in serene times and during periods of tumult.
Over the years, Dr. Williams trained about 25 doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows, all of whom occupy or have retired from influential positions in universities, industry, and government service in the United States and abroad. Dr. Williams was not only an exceedingly knowledgeable professor, but also a creative mentor who captured and held the interest of his students. He had an unusual capacity to generate enthusiasm and to elicit a person's best efforts. Dr. Mary Anderson Hilton, one of his early graduate students who is now professor emerita of biochemistry at the University of Louisville School of Medicine, remembers him well:
When I entered graduate school at Cornell in February 1947, the Department of Biochemistry was aglow with pride in its recent Nobel laureate, Dr. James B. Sumner. Dr. Sumner then had one female graduate student, and the word was that "that was enough." I was grateful to Dr. Williams for taking me under his wing. Although we had not previously met, we had much in common: His father had been my math teacher at State College High School, and we had both earned degrees in biochemistry from Penn State, where we studied under my father, Prof. A. K. Anderson. From the beginning, Dr. Williams was a supportive and inspiring mentor. He suggested that I explore Dr. Max Dunn's idea of assessing protein quality using Tetrahymena geleii, which required the same essential amino acids as the human. Our studies were published in 1951 in The Journal of Nutrition. Dr. Williams stimulated my lifelong interest in amino acid metabolism, which remained the focus of my research until my retirement in 1996.
In 1953, Dr. Williams received the Borden Award from the American Institute of Nutrition for "contributions on the vitamin components of human milk and nutritional and biochemical changes during lactation." Locally, he served as chairman of the Cornell section of the American Chemical Society and established a reputation as a catalyzer of research. When Dr. Maynard retired in June of 1955, Dr. Williams was appointed head of the department.
When Dr. Williams assumed his new duties, the department had three faculty members besides himself: Drs. Louise Daniel, Leslie Neal, and Walter Nelson. The small, but effective department continued to enhance the university's national and international reputation as a center of excellence in biochemical and nutritional research. In 1964, when all biological research was consolidated into the newly created Division of Biological Sciences, Dr. Williams was appointed professor of biochemistry in that division's Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. During his last nine years before retirement, he conducted research and other activities in the new division.
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RETIREMENT YEARS (ITHACA, N.Y.; 1973–1991) |
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) on the occasion of the journal's 50th
anniversary.10This publication chronicles the origins of the AIN and contains
photographs of European and American pioneers in nutrition and
physiological chemistry. At about the same time, Dr. Williams published
an article in Federation Proceedings (1977
) giving thumbnail
sketches about the 10 men and one woman who founded the AIN.
During the 1980s, Dr. Williams was elected a Fellow of the American
Institute of Nutrition in recognition of his contributions to
nutritional biochemistry and his service to the scientific community.
Also during the 1980s, Dr. Williams and Agnes Gainey Williams—a native
of Ithaca and a graduate of Cornell University whom he had married in
1935—helped Dr. Macy
Hoobler11research and write Boundless Horizons: Portrait of a Pioneer
Woman Scientist (Macy Hoobler et al. 1982
). The book was published
two years before the death of this lifelong family friend.
Dr. Williams and his wife were constant companions, sharing interests in golf, music, reading, university functions, and travel. In later years, Mrs. Williams accompanied her husband to scientific meetings in the United States and Canada. He was proud of their three daughters, all Cornell graduates, and supportive of their careers. He particularly enjoyed family reunions with his grandchildren.
Dr. Williams passed away February 25, 1991. He is buried in Ithaca. His wife, Agnes G. Williams, and his eldest daughter, Patricia M. Williams, continue to live in the family home, near the Cornell campus. The 2nd daughter, Margaret Williams Puck, her husband, and three sons reside in California. Kathleen Williams Millar (the 3rd daughter) lives in Colorado with her husband and daughter.
Bill Williams, as he was known to his friends, received his postsecondary education and much of his research funding from land-grant institutions. He repaid those benefits many times through his lifelong dedication to the ideal embodied in the Land Grant Act: the advancement of science for the benefit of humanity.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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On a fact-finding trip to Ithaca in July 1998, I was given information about Dr. Williams's professional life at Cornell by Dr. Milton L. Scott, professor emeritus of nutrition, and Dr. Malden C. Nesheim, provost emeritus. I thank Dr. Mary A. Hilton, professor emerita of biochemistry at the University of Louisville School of Medicine, for the paragraph she wrote and Susan P. Stark, writer-editor, of Rockville, Md., for copyediting the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 See NAPS document no. 05503 for 11 pages of
supplementary material (complete bibliography: 147 research papers and
4 other publications). Order from NAPS, c/o Microfiche Publications,
248 Hempstead Turnpike, West Hempstead, NY 11552. Remit with your
order, not under separate cover, $15.00 (US funds on a US Bank only)
for photocopies or $5.00 for microfiche. Institutions and organizations
may order by purchase order; however, there is a billing and handling
charge of $25.00, plus any applicable postage, for this service.
Outside U.S. & Canada add postage of $4.50 for the first 20 pages and
$1.00 for each ten pages of material thereafter, or $5.00 for the first
microfiche and $1.00 for each fiche thereafter.
2 Today Pennsylvania State University.
3 Now the American Society for Nutritional
Sciences.
4 Women were not included in conscription during
World War II. However, they had the option of joining the WACs
(Women's Army Corps) or the WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer
Emergency Service, the women's auxiliary of the US Navy).
5 This quote is from the 1929 mission statement of
the Children's Fund of Michigan, which was established through a gift
from US Senator James Couzens (1876–1936).
6 In selecting the papers to highlight in this
article, I was guided by the topics that Dr. Williams defined as his
areas of research in American Men and Women of Science (9th
through 18th eds.).
7 The substitution of plant foods for animal
products (meat scraps, fish meal, whey, etc.) as a protein source began
during the 1940s. This change necessitated more exacting formulation of
rations to ensure that their amino acid composition mirrored the
pattern required for optimal health.
8 Information provided by Dr. Malden Nesheim,
provost emeritus.
9 The commemorating symposium for this
anniversary, which Dr. Williams organized and chaired, was held April
11, 1978, during the American Institute of Nutrition's annual meeting
in Atlantic City, NJ.
10 Dr. Macy's surname through marriage.
Manuscript received September 24, 1998. Initial review completed . Revision accepted November 24, 1998.
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REFERENCES |
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1. Ahluwalia G. S., Williams H. H. Alkaline phosphatase activity from Escherichia coli grown on selenite media. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1966;117:192-193[Medline]
2.
Anderson W. E., Williams H. H. The rôle of fat in the diet. Physiol. Rev. 1937;17:335-372
3. Fryer J. H., Williams H. H. Cholinesterase activity levels among agricultural workers. A.M.A. Arch. Ind. Health 1956;14:132-137[Medline]
4.
Louw J. G., Williams H. H., Maynard L. A. A new method for the study in vitro of rumen digestion. Science 1949;110:478-480
5. Macy I. G., Williams H. H. Hidden Hunger 1945 Jaques Cattell Press Lancaster, PA.
6. Macy Hoobler I. G., with Williams H. H., Williams A. G. Boundless Horizons: Portrait of a Pioneer Woman Scientist 1982 Exposition Press Smithtown, NY.
7. McCollum E. V. The end of an era: New horizons. A History of Nutrition 1957:420-424 Houghton Mifflin Boston, MA.
8. Scala J., Ulbrich P., Williams H. H. The effects of selenite on ß-galactosidase induction in Escherichia coli. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1964;107:132-136
9. Schwarz K., Foltz C. M. Selenium as an integral part of Factor 3 against dietary necrotic liver degeneration. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1957;79:3292-3293
10.
Tuve T., Williams H. H. Metabolism of selenium by Escherichia coli: Biosynthesis of selenomethionine. J. Biol. Chem. 1961;236:597-601
11. Williams, H. H. (1955) "Essential" Amino Acid Content of Animal Feeds, Memoir 337. Cornell Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta., Ithaca, NY.
12. Williams H. H. The founding of the American Institute of Nutrition, including commentaries on the founders. Fed. Proc. 1977;36:1915-1918[Medline]
13. Williams H. H. History of the American Institute of Nutrition: The first fifty years. Hill F. W. eds. A History of the American Institute of Nutrition 1928–1978 1978:25-197 American Institute of Nutrition Bethesda, MD.
14. Williams H. H., Anderson W. E., Mendel L. B. The influence of cholesterol on the tissues of rats ingesting diets rich and poor in fats. J. Nutr. 1934;7 No. 5S:14(abs.)
15.
Williams H. H., Curtin L. V., Abraham J., Loosli J. K., Maynard L. A. Estimation of growth requirements for amino acids by assay of the carcass. J. Biol. Chem. 1954;208:277-286
16.
Williams H. H., Maynard L. A. The effect of specific dietary fats on the blood lipids of lactating goats. J. Dairy Sci. 1934;17:223-232
17. Williams H. H., Melville J., Anderson W. E. Cholesterol and fatty acids in blood plasma of male and female rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1937;36:292-295
18. Williams H. H., Parker J. S., Pierce Z. H., Hart J. C., Fiala G., Pilcher H. L. Nutritional status survey, Groton Township, New York: VI. Chemical findings. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1951;27:215-221[Medline]
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