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a Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Faculty of Home Economics, Kobe Women's University, Suma-ku, Kobe 654-8585, Japan, b Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan, c Riken Chemical Industry Limited Company, Fushimi-ku, Kyoto 612-8404, Japan and d Department of Agricultural and Biological Chemistry, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Shimouma, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 154-0002, Japan
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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KEY WORDS: • garlic • uncoupling protein • noradrenaline • adrenaline • rats
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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, Bordia et al. 1977
, Chang and Johnson 1980
, Chi et al. 1982
, Qureshi et al. 1983
, Sharma et al. 1976
, Shoetan et al. 1984
), and have
anticarcinogenic and antitumorigenic properties (Milner 1996
, Sundaram and Milner 1996
). However, the
effective constituents of garlic in terms of the enhancement of
triglyceride catabolism were not fully clarified. Previous work in our
laboratory showed, in rats, that supplementation of a high-fat diet
with 8 g/kg diet of garlic powder or the administration of
diallyldisulfide, a major volatile sulfur-compound in garlic, enhances
triglyceride catabolism and growth of interscapular brown-adipose
tissue (IBAT)3by increasing noradrenaline secretion (Oi et al. 1995
).
Furthermore, we reported that the administration of alliin and volatile
sulfur-containing compounds in garlic enhances thermogenesis by
increasing noradrenaline secretion via ß-adrenergic stimulation
(Oi et al. 1998
). Triglyceride metabolism is stimulated
by catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) released through
stimulation of the activities of the sympathetic nervous system, and
subsequent thermogenesis (Himms-Hagen 1992
,
Landsberg and Young 1981
, Levin et al. 1983
). Noradrenaline secretion, in response to sympathetic
nervous system stimulation, likely plays a major role in the regulation
of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) (Deseautels and Himms-Hagen 1979
, Himms-Hagen 1992
, Mory et al. 1984
, Rothwell and Stock 1979, 1981
). Sympathetic
nervous stimulation was reported to regulate thermogenesis by
increasing uncoupling protein (UCP) content, especially subtype 1 (UCP
1) but not UCP 2 or 3 in BAT (Boss et al. 1997
,
Fleury et al. 1997
, Klingenberg 1990
,
Mory et al. 1984
). Recent studies indicated that the
enhancement of thermogenesis in BAT is due to the influence of dietary
fats of various degrees of saturation (Mercer and Trayhurn 1984, 1987
,
Shimomura et al. 1990
). The present study was conducted
to identify in further detail the effective constituents of garlic that
induce the enhancement of triglyceride catabolism and thermogenesis. We
performed two experiments on rats to determine whether sulfides in
garlic collaborate with allyl residues and sulfur atoms, and play a
role in stimulating triglyceride catabolism. |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Male Sprague-Dawley rats (Japan SLC, Inc., Shizuoka, Japan) were housed individually in stainless steel wire-bottom cages in a room maintained at 22–24°C and about 50% relative humidity. The room was lit from 0700 to 1900 h. Tap water was freely available. Rats, 4- and 7-wk-old, were purchased for Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, respectively, and given a commercial diet (CE-2, Japan Clea Inc., Tokyo, Japan) for 3 d before starting the experiments. This study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Kobe Women's University, Faculty of Home Economics.
Materials.
The shortening used in the diet in Experiment 1 consisted of partially
hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oil (containing 25.0% saturated
fatty acids, 33.3% monounsaturated fatty acids, 25.0% polyunsaturated
fatty acids and 0% cholesterol; Crisco®: Procter & Gamble,
Cincinnati, OH). The lard (containing 39.5% saturated fatty acids,
48.5% monounsaturated fatty acids, 10.3% polyunsaturated fatty acids
and 0.1% cholesterol) was purchased from Oriental Yeast Co. (Tokyo,
Japan). Garlic powder, heat-dried at 60 to 70°C, was obtained from
Riken Chemical Industry (Kyoto, Japan). The volatile compounds in
garlic powder were analyzed by gas chromatography using
diallyldisulfide as the standard (Yu, T.-H. et al.
1989a
, 1989b
), and
were expressed in diallyldisulfide equivalents (Table 1
).
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The rats were anesthetized (Maggi and Meli 1986
) using
-chloralose and urethane, which were purchased from Wako Chemical
Ind., (Osaka, Japan) and Tokyo Chemical Ind., (Tokyo, Japan),
respectively. Diallylmonosulfide (99.0%) and diallyldisulfide (88.9%;
the remaining components were diallylmonosulfide 5.4% and
diallyltrisulfide 5.3%) were purchased from Tokyo Chemical Ind.
Diallyltrisulfide (73.4%; the remaining component was diallyldisulfide
24.3%) was synthesized by the method of Kirner and Richter (1929)
and was purified by chromatography (Nishimura et al. 1988
). Alliin (purity, 99.9%) was synthesized by the
method of Iberl et al. (1990)
.
S-Allyl-L-cysteine (99.9%) was synthesized by
the method of Lancaster and Kelly (1983)
.
Dimethyldisulfide (98%), diethyldisulfide (99%), dipropyldisulfide
(98%), di-n-butyldisulfide (95%),
di-iso-butyldisulfide (98%), di-n-amyldisulfide
(95%), di-iso-amyldisulfide (98%) and
di-tert-amyldisulfide (80%) were purchased from Tokyo
Chemical Ind. The chemical structures of these compounds, used in
Experiment 2, are shown in Figure 1.
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The experimental diets were two high-fat diets (30% fat diet)
containing either shortening (shortening diet) or lard (lard diet) as
shown in Table 1
. Control rats received the shortening or
lard diets, while rats in the garlic groups were fed either of these
diets supplemented with 8 g/kg diet of garlic powder (garlic diets).
Rats weighing 80–90 g were separated into four groups of six to seven
rats and were each given a high-fat diet (shortening diet or lard diet)
with or without garlic powder for 28 d. Each group of rats was
proffered the appropriate diet in amounts such that the four groups
consumed equal metabolizable energy during the experimental period, and
the food consumption in all the four groups was approximately
equivalent to the maximal diet that rats can consume under these
conditions. At the end of the experimental period, the rats were
transferred into individual metabolic cages, where urine and feces were
separately collected for 1 d. In the preliminary experiment, urine
was collected everyday for 3 d, and the catecholamine excretion in
each of these samples was determined for comparison. No significant
differences existed in the urinary catecholamine excretion among the
three samples. Accordingly, we confirmed that the daily urinary
excretion of noradrenaline and adrenaline was not affected by the
stress of placing the animals in a metabolic cage. Each urinary sample
was collected in a bottle containing 1 mL of 6 mol/L HCl. After the
collection, urinary total noradrenaline and adrenaline excretion was
determined by the method of Davidson and Fitzpatrick (1985)
. Urinary creatinine excretions were measured by the
method of Clark and Thompson (1949)
. In the fed state,
rats were anesthetized by an intraperitoneal injection of
-chloralose and urethane (75 and 750 mg/kg body weight,
respectively). Blood samples were collected from the abdominal aorta,
and plasma was separated by centrifugation (3,000 x g
for 15 min). After collecting blood samples, the liver, kidney,
perirenal adipose tissue, epididymal fat pad and IBAT were immediately
excised and weighed. All samples were stored at -40°C until
analysis. Plasma triglycerides and free fatty acid concentrations were
determined enzymatically using commercial kits (triglycerides,
Triglyceride G-test Wako; free fatty acids, NEFA C-Test Wako, Wako
Chemical Ind.). Plasma total cholesterol concentrations were measured
according to the method of Pearson et al. (1953)
. IBAT
mitochondria were isolated by the method of Cannon and Lindberg (1979)
, and the protein contents were measured by the method of
Lowry et al. (1951)
. In a preliminary experiment, we
confirmed the validity of the mitochondrial protein isolation method
from IBAT and that the recovery of mitochondrial protein was, in
general, ~80–90%. The mitochondrial fraction (20 µ g protein)
isolated from the IBAT of each rat was subjected to reducing SDS-PAGE,
transferred onto a nylon membrane, reacted with antirat-UCP serum, from
which the UCP content was determined by Western Blot analysis as
previously described (Tsukazaki et al. 1995
) with a
slight modification of the immunodetection method as follows. The
blotting membranes were incubated with primary rat UCP antibody, which
reacted with at least UCP 1 (Hikichi and Sugihara 1993
).
These membranes were then incubated with pig-rabbit IgG conjugated with
horseradish peroxidase (Dako Japan, Kyoto, Japan); the signals were
developed with an enhanced chemiluminescence system (Dupont NEN
Research Products, Boston, MA) and quantified by densitometry using NIH
image software with a scanner (EPSON GT-6000, Tokyo, Japan). Thus, UCP
was quantified by densitometric analysis, and the UCP content, which
was calculated from the total amount of UCP by image analysis on the
computer system, was expressed as a relative value for each group of
rats.
Experiment 2.
Rats weighing about 250 g were anesthetized as described above, and their rectal temperature was maintained between 36.5 and 37.5°C using a direct-current heating pad. Six to seven rats were tested for the evaluation of each compound, and for comparison with rats which received vehicle injection alone (9 g/L NaCl solution containing 2% ethanol and 0.5% Tween 80). We determined the dose-response and time-response (the peak time response) with respect to the plasma concentrations of noradrenaline and adrenaline following the administration of S-allyl-L-cysteine. For dose-response measurements, each rat received 1 mL of the vehicle containing 10 mmol/L (1.93 mg), 20 mmol/L (3.86 mg) or 30 mmol/L (5.76 mg) of S-allyl-L-cysteine into the right femoral vein over 1 min. Blood samples were collected from the abdominal aorta after 10 min. For the time-response measurements, each rat received an infusion of 1 mL of the vehicle containing 10 mmol/L of S-allyl-L-cysteine (1.93 mg) into the right femoral vein over 1 min. Abdominal aortic blood samples were collected from each rat 3, 6, 10 and 15 min after the infusion. In addition, the dose-response relationship with respect to the concentrations of noradrenaline and adrenaline following the administration of diallyldisulfide was also determined, i.e., each rat received 1 mL of the vehicle containing 5 mmol/L (0.73 mg), 10 mmol/L (1.46 mg) or 15 mmol/L (2.19 mg) of diallyldisulfide into the right femoral vein over 1 min, and blood samples were collected from the abdominal aorta after 10 min. Based on these dose-response and time-response measurement data, we performed the experiment as mentioned below by administering 1 mL of vehicle containing 10 mmol/L of each compound to the rats and collecting abdominal aortic blood after 10 min.
Each rat received an infusion of 1 mL of either vehicle alone or the
same vehicle containing 10 mmol/L of each compound, i.e., 1 mL of
either diallylmonosulfide (1.14 mg), diallyldisulfide (1.46 mg),
diallyltrisulfide (1.78 mg) or alliin (1.77 mg) into the right femoral
vein over 1 min. In a separate experiment, the rats were individually
administered 1 mL of dimethyldisulfide (0.94 mg), diethyldisulfide
(1.22 mg), dipropyldisulfide (1.50 mg), dibutyldisulfide (1.78 mg),
diallyldisulfide (1.46 mg), di-n-butyldisulfide (1.78 mg),
di-iso-butyldisulfide (1.78 mg),
di-n-amyldisulfide (2.06 mg),
di-iso-amyldisulfide (2.06 mg) or
di-tert-amyldisulfide (2.06 mg), by the same method as
described above. Blood samples of each rat were collected into
heparinized tubes from the abdominal aorta 10 min after the infusion of
each compound, and plasma was obtained by centrifugation. Plasma
noradrenaline and adrenaline were purified with aluminum oxide and
assayed by high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical
detection as described previously (Watanabe et al. 1988
).
Statistical analysis.
All data are presented as means ± SEM. Statistical
analyses were carried out with the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS 6.0 for Windows; SPSS, Chicago, IL). In Experiment 1,
treatment effects (dietary fat source and garlic supplementation) were
analyzed by two-way ANOVA, and the differences between means were
tested using Duncan's multiple range test (Duncan 1957
)
when the F-value was significant. In Experiment 2, data were
analyzed by one-way ANOVA, and significant differences between means
with either the same or different variance were evaluated by Student's
t test and Aspin-Welch's test, respectively
(Snedecor and Cochran 1980
). Differences with
P < 0.05 were considered to be significant.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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After 28 d of dietary treatment, the mean body weight and the weights of perirenal adipose tissue and epididymal fat pad in rats in the garlic diet group were significantly lower than those in rats in the control diet group (Table 2 ).No differences were present in liver weight and urinary creatinine levels between the control and garlic diet groups, in either rats fed the shortening or those fed the lard diet. The mitochondrial protein content in IBAT was significantly greater in garlic-shortening and garlic-lard diet groups compared with the corresponding control groups, whereas no such effects of garlic supplementation in the IBAT weights were noted. The plasma triglyceride concentrations were significantly lower in rats fed garlic compared to controls, whereas no significant differences in plasma total cholesterol concentrations were noted. In addition, plasma free fatty acid concentration in the shortening-fed control group was significantly higher than in those fed garlic. However, such a difference was not observed between the control-lard and garlic-lard diet groups (Table 2) .
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The dose-response and time-response of plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline concentrations following S-allyl-L-cysteine administration in rats are shown in Table 3. The plasma concentrations of noradrenaline were significantly greater in rats that received 10, 20 or 30 mmol/L of S-allyl-L-cysteine compared to those that received the vehicle alone, although the plasma adrenaline concentrations were not affected. The effects of administration of S-allyl-L-cysteine were not dose-dependent. The dose-response relationships of plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline concentrations in rats following diallyldisulfide administration are shown in Table 4. The plasma concentrations of noradrenaline and adrenaline were significantly greater in rats that received 10 or 15 mmol/L of diallyldisulfide as compared to those that received the vehicle alone. The increases were dose-dependent, and there was a positive correlation between the noradrenaline and adrenaline concentrations and the dose of diallyldisulfide [noradrenaline, P < 0.001 (r = 0.87), adrenaline P < 0.001 (r = 0.81)].
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). Recently, we also reported that
alliin and some volatile sulfur-containing compounds in garlic enhance
thermogenesis via ß-adrenergic stimulation of the sympathetic nervous
system by increasing noradrenaline secretion in rats (Oi et al. 1998
). The present study was undertaken to identify in further
detail the effective constituent(s) of garlic which induce enhancement
of triglyceride catabolism as well as thermogenesis through stimulation
of the sympathetic nervous system. In Experiment 1, the effects of garlic powder supplementation on thermogenesis in BAT, and noradrenaline and adrenaline secretion in rats fed diets containing 30% of either vegetable oil or animal fat were investigated. Our data on UCP content in IBAT suggest that the thermogenic effect of the diets was enhanced by garlic supplementation of the high-fat diets in rats (Fig. 2) . Furthermore, our findings suggest that a higher degree of thermogenesis occurs in rats fed the lard diet than in those fed the shortening diet. These results indicate that the effect of garlic supplementation on thermogenesis may be modulated by differences in the types of fat present in the diets. Possibly thermogenesis is facilitated to a greater extent by garlic supplementation in rats fed the lard diet, rich in saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, compared to garlic supplementation in rats fed the shortening diet. An independent preliminary experiment, however, suggests that the diet cholesterol content (supplemented at 1% cholesterol in both the shortening and lard diets) had no influence on the enhanced thermogenesis due to garlic supplementation. Thus, further studies may be warranted to investigate the effect of saturated fatty acids on the degree of enhancement of thermogenesis following garlic supplementation. Our data indicate that garlic supplementation enhanced urinary noradrenaline and adrenaline excretion (Fig. 3) and decreased body fat accumulation (Table 2) in rats fed the lard diet through its actions on the sympathetic nervous system, and decreased body fat accumulation by increasing triglyceride catabolism by the elevation of thermogenesis in BAT with increasing UCP.
With respect to the influence of the types of dietary fat on
thermogenesis, our findings of different responses to garlic
supplementation in rats fed two types of high-fat diets are consistent
with the findings of other researchers. Recent studies indicated that a
high-fat diet enriched with corn oil enhances diet-induced
thermogenesis (Mercer and Trayhurn 1984, 1987
). Shimomura et al. (1990)
reported that less body fat accumulates in rats
fed a diet containing safflower oil than in those fed a diet containing
beef tallow, due to the greater elevation of thermogenesis in the
former. Considerable interest is shown regarding which dietary
macronutrient, with particular emphasis on dietary lipids of various
degrees of saturation, affects thermogenesis and whole-body energy flux
(Awad 1981
, Mercer and Trayhurn 1984
,
Paik and Yearick 1978
). Long-term overeating of the
highly palatable cafeteria diet, which is generally high in fat
content, was reported to induce hypertrophy of BAT (Rothwell and Stock 1979
), and the two diets used in our study are possible
models of highly palatable greasy diets with a sweet taste.
In Experiment 2, to determine the effective constituents of garlic that
enhance triglyceride catabolism and thermogenesis, the effects of
allyl-containing sulfides on plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline
concentrations were investigated in anesthetized rats. The dose of
diallyldisulfide (10 mmol/L, 1.46 mg) corresponded approximately to
twice the total average amount of garlic consumed per day per rat in
the case of 0.8% garlic supplementation of the diet in Experiment 1.
It could therefore be considered as being equivalent to physiological
levels of garlic. Thus, we evaluated the effect of various constituents
of garlic on the plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline concentrations. In
our previous study, we found that the enhancement of noradrenaline
secretion following administration of diallyldisulfide was not observed
in the presence of a blocking agent of the sympathetic nervous system
(Oi et al. 1995
). Furthermore, we investigated the
effects of diallyldisulfide on the increase in temperature of the IBAT
and rectum in the presence of the -adrenergic blocking agent,
phentolamine, and the ß-adrenergic blocking agent, propranolol. The
significant increase in temperature induced by diallyldisulfide
administration was almost completely suppressed by concomitant
administration of the ß-adrenergic blocking agent (Oi et al. 1998
). Accordingly, we suggested that allyl-containing sulfides
in garlic enhance the activity of the peripheral sympathetic nervous
system via the ß-adrenergic receptor activation. Garlic contains an
odorless sulfur-containing compound known as alliin
(S-allyl-cysteine sulfoxide) and alliin lyase (alliinase,
EC.4.4.1.4) which catalyzes the transformation of alliin into a
volatile compound, diallylthiosulfinate (allicin) (Stoll and Seebeck 1948
). In our previous studies, we found that alliin,
diallyldisulfide and diallyltrisulfide enhanced thermogenesis via
ß-adrenergic stimulation following increases in plasma noradrenaline
concentrations (Oi et al. 1995, 1998
). In the study presented here, we confirmed that the
plasma concentrations of both noradrenaline and adrenaline were
increased following administration of diallyldisulfide,
diallyltrisulfide and alliin. In contrast, the other sulfide compounds
without an allyl-residue and S-allyl-L-cysteine
increased the plasma concentrations of noradrenaline, but not these of
adrenaline. We consider that the double bond in the allyl residue plays
a key role in the enhancement of noradrenaline and adrenaline
secretion, and that enhanced secretion is also affected by the number
of sulfur atoms contained in the allylsulfides. Therefore, we suggest
that the allyl-containing polysulfides in garlic are responsible for
the enhancement of noradrenaline and adrenaline secretion, as is also
the increased thermogenesis as evidenced by the increased UCP content
in IBAT.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked ''advertisement'' in accordance with 18 USC section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
2 Abbreviations used: BAT, brown adipose tissue;
IBAT, interscapular brown adipose tissue; UCP, uncoupling protein.
Manuscript received April 22, 1998. Initial review completed May 15, 1998. Revision accepted November 9, 1998.
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