![[Feedback]](/icons/banner/feedbackACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[For Subscribers]](/icons/banner/subscriberACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Archive]](/icons/banner/archiveACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Search]](/icons/banner/searchACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Contents]](/icons/banner/tocACT.gif){kind=icon}
|
|
|
|
|
||
* Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Office of Mathematical Assessment and Services, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, and
College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
2To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: mona.calvo{at}cfsan.fda.gov.
Global high prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency and re-emergence of rickets and the growing scientific evidence linking low circulating 25-hydroxyvitmain D to increased risk of osteoporosis, diabetes, cancer, and autoimmune disorders have stimulated recommendations to increase sunlight (UVB) exposure as a source of vitamin D. However, concern over increased risk of melanoma with unprotected UVB exposure has led to the alternative recommendation that sufficient vitamin D should be supplied through dietary sources alone. Here, we examine the adequacy of vitamin D intake worldwide and evaluate the ability of current fortification policies and supplement use practices among various countries to meet this recommendation. It is evident from our review that vitamin D intake is often too low to sustain healthy circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitmain D in countries without mandatory staple food fortification, such as with milk and margarine. Even in countries that do fortify, vitamin D intakes are low in some groups due to their unique dietary patterns, such as low milk consumption, vegetarian diet, limited use of dietary supplements, or loss of traditional high fish intakes. Our global review indicates that dietary supplement use may contribute 6–47% of the average vitamin D intake in some countries. Recent studies demonstrate safety and efficacy of community-based vitamin D supplementation trials and food staple fortification introduced in countries without fortification policies. Reliance on the world food supply as an alternative to UVB exposure will necessitate greater availability of fortified food staples, dietary supplement use, and/or change in dietary patterns to consume more fish.
KEY WORDS: • vitamin D intake • 25-hydroxyvitamin D • food fortification • dietary supplements • vitamin D dietary requirements
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  L. M. Arguelles, C. B. Langman, A. J. Ariza, F. N. Ali, K. Dilley, H. Price, X. Liu, S. Zhang, X. Hong, B. Wang, et al. Heritability and Environmental Factors Affecting Vitamin D Status in Rural Chinese Adolescent Twins J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2009; 94(9): 3273 - 3281. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. S. CROSS, T. NITTKE, and M. PETERLIK Modulation of Vitamin D Synthesis and Catabolism in Colorectal Mucosa: A New Target for Cancer Prevention Anticancer Res, September 1, 2009; 29(9): 3705 - 3712. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K Atherton, D J Berry, T Parsons, G J Macfarlane, C Power, and E Hypponen Vitamin D and chronic widespread pain in a white middle-aged British population: evidence from a cross-sectional population survey Ann Rheum Dis, June 1, 2009; 68(6): 817 - 822. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. W. Pike, M. B. Meyer, and M. L. Martowicz New Techniques in Transcription Research Extend Our Understanding of the Molecular Actions of the Vitamin D Hormone IBMS BoneKEy, May 1, 2009; 6(5): 169 - 180. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 F. R. Perez-Lopez, P. Chedraui, and J. Haya Review Article: Vitamin D Acquisition and Breast Cancer Risk Reproductive Sciences, January 1, 2009; 16(1): 7 - 19. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. O'Donnell, A. Cranney, T. Horsley, H. A Weiler, S. A Atkinson, D. A Hanley, D. S Ooi, L. Ward, N. Barrowman, M. Fang, et al. Efficacy of food fortification on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations: systematic review Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1528 - 1534. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Prentice, G. R Goldberg, and I. Schoenmakers Vitamin D across the lifecycle: physiology and biomarkers Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2008; 88(2): 500S - 506S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. A Gilchrest Sun exposure and vitamin D sufficiency Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2008; 88(2): 570S - 577S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Mark, K. Gray-Donald, E. E. Delvin, J. O'Loughlin, G. Paradis, E. Levy, and M. Lambert Low Vitamin D Status in a Representative Sample of Youth From Quebec, Canada Clin. Chem., August 1, 2008; 54(8): 1283 - 1289. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. Hedges and A. Scriven Sun safety: what are the health messages? Perspectives in Public Health, July 1, 2008; 128(4): 164 - 169. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. Wang-Gillam, D. A. Miles, and L. F. Hutchins Evaluation of Vitamin D Deficiency in Breast Cancer Patients on Bisphosphonates Oncologist, July 1, 2008; 13(7): 821 - 827. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D M. Freedman Commentary: The complexities of minimizing risks due to UV exposures Int. J. Epidemiol., June 1, 2008; 37(3): 667 - 668. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. Hypponen, B. J. Boucher, D. J. Berry, and C. Power 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, IGF-1, and Metabolic Syndrome at 45 Years of Age: A Cross-Sectional Study in the 1958 British Birth Cohort Diabetes, February 1, 2008; 57(2): 298 - 305. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Manios, G. Moschonis, G. Trovas, and G. P Lyritis Changes in biochemical indexes of bone metabolism and bone mineral density after a 12-mo dietary intervention program: the Postmenopausal Health Study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2007; 86(3): 781 - 789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. E. Mullin and A. Dobs Vitamin D and Its Role in Cancer and Immunity: A Prescription for Sunlight Nutr Clin Pract, June 1, 2007; 22(3): 305 - 322. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Schwalfenberg Not enough vitamin D: Health consequences for Canadians Can Fam Physician, May 1, 2007; 53(5): 841 - 854. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. M van Dam, M. B Snijder, J. M Dekker, C. D. Stehouwer, L. M Bouter, R. J Heine, and P. Lips Potentially modifiable determinants of vitamin D status in an older population in the Netherlands: the Hoorn Study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2007; 85(3): 755 - 761. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Hypponen and C. Power Hypovitaminosis D in British adults at age 45 y: nationwide cohort study of dietary and lifestyle predictors Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2007; 85(3): 860 - 868. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. J. Whiting and M. S. Calvo Overview of the Proceedings from Experimental Biology 2005 Symposium: Optimizing Vitamin D Intake for Populations with Special Needs: Barriers to Effective Food Fortification and Supplementation J. Nutr., April 1, 2006; 136(4): 1114 - 1116. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. S. Calvo and S. J. Whiting Public Health Strategies to Overcome Barriers to Optimal Vitamin D Status in Populations with Special Needs J. Nutr., April 1, 2006; 136(4): 1135 - 1139. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. S. Cross, M. Lipkin, and E. Kallay Nutrients Regulate the Colonic Vitamin D System in Mice: Relevance for Human Colon Malignancy J. Nutr., March 1, 2006; 136(3): 561 - 564. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 X. Gao, M. P. LaValley, and K. L. Tucker Prospective Studies of Dairy Product and Calcium Intakes and Prostate Cancer Risk: A Meta-Analysis J Natl Cancer Inst, December 7, 2005; 97(23): 1768 - 1777. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. E. Moore, M. M. Murphy, and M. F. Holick Vitamin D Intakes by Children and Adults in the United States Differ among Ethnic Groups J. Nutr., October 1, 2005; 135(10): 2478 - 2485. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. S. Calvo and S. J. Whiting Overview of the Proceedings from Experimental Biology 2004 Symposium: Vitamin D Insufficiency: A Significant Risk Factor in Chronic Diseases and Potential Disease-Specific Biomarkers of Vitamin D Sufficiency J. Nutr., February 1, 2005; 135(2): 301 - 303. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. J. Whiting and M. S. Calvo Dietary Recommendations for Vitamin D: a Critical Need for Functional End Points to Establish an Estimated Average Requirement J. Nutr., February 1, 2005; 135(2): 304 - 309. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
