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a Division of Human Nutrition and Epidemiology and b Food Science Group, Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences, Wageningen Agricultural University, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands and c Unilever Research Vlaardingen, 3130 AC Vlaardingen, The Netherlands
Carotenoid bioavailability depends, amongst other factors, on the food
matrix and on the type and extent of processing. To examine the effect
of variously processed spinach products and of dietary fiber on serum
carotenoid concentrations, subjects received, over a 3-wk period, a
control diet (n = 10) or a control diet supplemented
with carotenoids or one of four spinach products (n =
12 per group): whole leaf spinach with an almost intact food matrix,
minced spinach with the matrix partially disrupted, enzymatically
liquefied spinach in which the matrix was further disrupted and the
liquefied spinach to which dietary fiber (10 g/kg wet weight) was
added. Consumption of spinach significantly increased serum
concentrations of all-trans-ß–carotene,
cis-ß–carotene, (and consequently total ß-carotene),
lutein, 
-carotene and retinol and decreased the serum concentration
of lycopene. Serum total ß-carotene responses (changes in serum
concentrations from the start to the end of the intervention period)
differed significantly between the whole leaf and liquefied spinach
groups and between the minced and liquefied spinach groups. The lutein
response did not differ among spinach groups. Addition of dietary fiber
to the liquefied spinach had no effect on serum carotenoid responses.
The relative bioavailability as compared to bioavailability of the
carotenoid supplement for whole leaf, minced, liquefied and liquefied
spinach plus added dietary fiber for ß-carotene was 5.1, 6.4, 9.5 and
9.3%, respectively, and for lutein 45, 52, 55 and 54%, respectively.
We conclude that the bioavailability of lutein from spinach was higher
than that of ß-carotene and that enzymatic disruption of the matrix
(cell wall structure) enhanced the bioavailability of ß-carotene from
whole leaf and minced spinach, but had no effect on lutein
bioavailability.
KEY WORDS: • carotenoids • bioavailability • processing spinach • dietary fiber • humans
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